Psychology Revision Notes PDF

\(8) issues + debates in psychology - gender bias (gender + culture in psychology) - - bias is inevitable in research process due to psychologists' beliefs + values influenced by social + historical contexts they live in - bias undermines psychology's claim to universality - that...

\(8) issues + debates in psychology - gender bias (gender + culture in psychology) - - bias is inevitable in research process due to psychologists' beliefs + values influenced by social + historical contexts they live in - bias undermines psychology's claim to universality - that conclusions drawn about human characteristics can be applied to all, despite different experiences, upbringing, cultures, time - gender bias - tendency to treat an individual/group in a different way; psychological research/theory may offer a view that does not justifiably represent experience + behaviour of men or (usually) women (based on stereotypes rather than real difference) alpha bias - alpha bias - research that focuses on differences between men + women + so tends to present a view that exaggerates these differences (can heighten value of, or more often devalue women) +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | e.g. Bowlby's monotropic theory | - suggested mother's role more | | | crucial to infant's | | | development than father as | | | mothers normally primary | | | attachment figures | | | | | | - creates gender stereotypes on | | | role of men + women in | | | families which could have | | | negative consequences (e.g. | | | oppression of women) | +===================================+===================================+ | e.g. Freud's psychosexual | - during phallic stage, females | | development theory | do not experience castration | | | anxiety due to de sire for | | | fathers so are under less | | | pressure to identify with | | | moral standards of same-sex | | | parent to resolve it | | | | | | - suggests they have weaker | | | superego + so are morally | | | inferior to males | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | e.g. Chodorow, psychodynamic | - suggested daughters + mothers | | approach | have greater connectedness | | | than sons + mothers due to | | | biological similarities | | | | | | - women can better | | | bond/empathise with others | | | due to child's closeness | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ beta bias - - beta bias - research that focuses on similarities between men + women + so tends to present a view that ignores or minimises differences (assuming findings equally applicable to both) +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | e.g. fight or flight response | - biological research has | | | assumed both male + females | | | respond to threatening | | | situations with fight or | | | flight | | | | | | - based on experiments on male | | | animals (not affected by | | | hormonal changes like | | | ovulation so adrenaline | | | change due to env. stressors | | | more reliably measured) | | | | | | - recent research has shown | | | females demonstrate 'tend + | | | befriend response' due to | | | plentiful oxytocin hormone in | | | women (reduces fight or | | | flight) | | | | | | - incorrect generalisation can | | | result in misinterpretation | | | of female behaviour | +===================================+===================================+ | e.g. attachment with father | - research has assumed | | | emotional care is provided | | | solely by mother | | | | | | - but research on role of | | | fathers show fathers can | | | supply emotional care often | | | assumed to be province of | | | women | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ androcentrism - - alpha + beta bias are caused by androcentrism - when 'normal' behaviour is judged according to a male standards meaning female behaviour often judged to be 'abnormal' or 'deficient' by comparison (psychology has presented male-dominated version of world) - e.g. American Psychological Association's list of 100 most influential psychologists of 20^th^ century only included 6 women - women's' anger has been diagnosed as premenstrual syndrome, medicalising their emotions by explaining it in normal terms (sign of illness) while in men it is seen as rational response to external pressures evalutaton - +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | strengths | limitations | +===================================+===================================+ | counterpoint - | - gender differences often | | | presented as fixed + enduring | | - does not mean should avoid | (alpha bias) when not | | studying possible gender | | | differences | - Maccoby + Jackling concluded | | | from several gender studies | | - Madura's research suggests | that girls have superior | | social stereotype that women | verbal ability + boys better | | better at multitasking may | spatial ability - suggested | | have biological truth | differences 'hardwired' into | | | brain before birth | | - women's brain may benefit | | | from better connections | - findings widely reported as | | between right + left | facts but Joel used brain | | hemisphere than in man 's | scanning + found no such sex | | brain | differences in brain | | | structure/processing - so | | - suggests may be biological | data probably popularised as | | differences but should still | it fitted existing | | be wary of exaggerating | stereotypes of girls as | | effect they may have on | 'speakers' + boys as 'doers' | | behaviour | | | | - so should be wary of | | | accepting findings as | | | biological facts when might | | | be better explain as social | | | stereotypes | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - gender-biased research may | - gender bias promotes sexism | | create misleading assumptions | in research process | | about female behaviour + fait | | | to challenge negative | - women underrepresented in | | stereotypes | university departments (esp. | | | science) - although | | - e.g. feminists claim medical | undergraduate intake mostly | | category of premenstrual | women, lectures mostly male | | syndrome medicalises + | | | pathologies female emotions | - so research likely to be | | like anger to delegitimise | conducted by men which may | | them | disadvantage women | | | participants - e.g. male | | - but many modern researchers | researcher may expect women | | embrace bias as crucial | to be irrational + unable to | | aspect of research rather | complete complex tasks + such | | than seeing it as threatening | expectations might mean women | | objectivity | underperform in studies | | | | | - Lamberts study of lack of | - means institutional | | women in executive positions | structures + methods of | | in accountancy firms included | psychology may produced | | reflection on how their | gender-biased findings | | gender-related experiences | | | influence their reading of | | | events | | | | | | - suggests gender bias may add | | | extra dimension to research | | | if psychologists up front | | | about it in their work | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - | - research challenging gender | | | biases may not be published | | | | | | - Magdalena analysed 1000+ | | | articles on gender bias + | | | found gender bias research | | | funded less often + published | | | by less prestigious | | | journals - means fewer | | | scholars become aware of it | | | or apply within own work | | | | | | - researchers argued this still | | | true when gender bias | | | compared to ethnic bias + | | | when other factors controlled | | | like author gender + | | | methodology used) | | | | | | - so gender bias in research | | | may not be taken as seriously | | | as other forms of bias | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ cultural bias (gender + culture in psychology) - - cultural bias - tendency to interpret all phenomena through 'lens' of one's own culture, ignoring the effects that cultural differences might have on behaviour - Heinrich's reviews of studies found 68% of research participants were from US - he coined term WEIRD to describe population majority of psychological research carried out on - westernised, educated, industrialised, rich, democracies - threatens universality + mean people from less educated, agricultural + poorer cultures seen as 'abnormal', 'inferior' or unusual ethnocentrism - ethnocentrism - judging other cultures by standards + values of one's own culture - in extreme form it is belief in superiority of one's own culture which may lead to prejudice + discrimination +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | e.g. Ainsworth's Strange | - suggested 'secure attachment' | | Situation | was ideal in infants, | | | reflecting only norms of | | | Western culture - lead to | | | misinterpretation of | | | child-rearing practices in | | | other countries seen to | | | deviate from American 'norm' | | | | | | - e.g. Japanese infants more | | | likely to be classed as | | | insecurely attached, not | | | considering that Japanese | | | babies rarely separated from | | | mothers | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ cultural relativism - - cultural relativism - idea that norms + values (+ ethics + moral standards) can only be meaningful + understood within specific social + cultural contexts - etic approach - looks at behaviour from outside of given culture + attempts do describe those behaviours as universal - emic approach - looks at behaviour from inside given culture + identifies behaviours that are specific to that culture - Strange Situation example of imposed etic - studies behaviour inside one culture (America) + assumed ideal attachment type + method for assessing it could be applied universally - psychology criticised for using etic approach - must be mindful of cultural relativism to avoid cultural bias (take emic approach) evaluation - +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | strengths | limitations | +===================================+===================================+ | counterpoint - | - many influential studies in | | | psychology culturally-biased | | - argued due to increased media | | | globalisation, | - e.g. social influence - | | individualist-collectivist | Asch's + Milgram's original | | distinction no longer applies | studies conducted only on US | | | participants (mostly white, | | - traditional argument is | middle-class students) | | individualist countries (US) | | | value individuals + | - replications in different | | independence whilst | countries produced different | | collectivist ones (India + | results - e.g. Asch-type | | China) value society + group | experiments in collectivist | | needs | cultures found higher rates | | | of conformity than original | | - but Takano + Osaka found | studies in US (individualist) | | 14/15 studies comparing US + | | | Japan found no evidence of | - suggests understanding of | | individualism or | topics like social influence | | collectivism - describing | should only be applied to | | distinction as lazy + | individualist cultures | | simplistic | | | | | | - suggests cultural bias less | | | of issue in more recent | | | psychological research | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - cultural bias has led to | - emergence of cultural | | prejudice against groups of | psychology | | people | | | | - study of how people shape + | | - Gould explained first IQ | are shaped by cultural | | tests on army recruits during | experience - emerging field + | | WW1 led eugenic social | incorporates work from | | policies in US - many items | researchers in other | | were ethnocentric (e.g. | disciplines (incl. | | assumed everyone knew US | anthropology + sociology) | | presidents' names) | | | | - cultural psychologists strive | | - concluded recruits from | to avoid ethnocentric | | south-eastern Europe + | assumptions by taking emic | | African Americans received | approach + conducted research | | lowest scores - this not | from inside culture alongside | | taken as sign of tests | local researchers using | | inadequacy but used to inform | culturally-based techniques | | racist discourse about | | | genetic inferiority of | - cross-cultural research tends | | cultural/ethnic groups | to focus on just two cultures | | | instead of larger sale | | - ethnic minorities deemed | studies with 8+ | | 'mentally unfit' + denied | | | educational + professional | - suggests modern psychologists | | opportunities | more mindful of dangers of | | | cultural bias + take steps to | | - shows cultural bias can be | avoid | | used to justify prejudice + | | | discrimination towards | | | cultural/ethnic groups | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - | - cross-cultural research helps | | | challenge long-standing ways | | | of thinking - seeing some | | | concepts social rather than | | | 'hardwired'/biological | | | provides better understanding | | | of human behaviour | | | | | | - counters charge of | | | ethnocentrism + means | | | conclusions drawn have more | | | validity if they recognise | | | role of culture | | | | | | - but should not be assumed all | | | psychology is culturally | | | relative + no behaviour | | | universal - research suggest | | | basic facial expression for | | | emotions same for humans + | | | animals (happiness, disgust) | | | | | | - even though criticised some | | | features of attachment are | | | (e.g. interactional | | | synchrony) universal - also | | | although imposed etic useful, | | | etic approach can also | | | sometimes be helpful | | | | | | - so full understanding of | | | human behaviour requires both | | | but for too long universal | | | view dominated | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ free will + determinism - - free will-determinism debate asks - is our behaviour matter of free will (selected without constraint) or are we product of set of internal/external influences, determining what we do - biological approach suggests causes internal (nature/nurture), behaviourist suggests external + humanistic embraces concept of free will free will - - free will - notion that humans make choices + their behaviour/thoughts not determined by biological or external forces (we are self-determining) - advocated by humanistic approach - does not deny biological/environmental forces exert some influence but we can reject these forces as we are in control of our behaviour determinism - - determinism - view that an individual's behaviour is shaped or controlled by internal or external forces rather than individuals will to do something - hard determinism - all behaviour is caused by something (internal or external factors), so free will is an illusion - e.g. biological approach sees behaviour as product of genes + neurochemistry) - soft determinism - behaviour may be predictable (caused by internal/external factors) but also room for personal choice from limited range of possibilities (restricted free will) - e.g. cognitive approach suggests individuals can reason + make decisions within limits of their cognitive system - types of determinism: +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | biological determinism - | - belief that behaviour is | | | caused by biological | | | (genetic, hormonal, | | | evolutionary) influences that | | | we cannot control (biological | | | approach) | | | | | | - e.g. role of autonomic | | | nervous system on stress | | | response | | | | | | - e.g. genes which affect brain | | | structure + neurotransmitter | | | production (i.e. serotonin + | | | dopamine) determine | | | behaviour - CDH-13 + MAOA | | | gene candidate genes for | | | criminality | +===================================+===================================+ | environmental determinism - | - belief that behaviour is | | | caused by features of | | | environment (systems of | | | reward + punishment) that we | | | cannot control | | | | | | - e.g. Skinner said all | | | behaviour caused by pervious | | | experiences through | | | classical + operant | | | conditioning - 'choices' are | | | only sum of reinforcement | | | | | | - e.g. phobias are result of | | | conditioning - Watson's study | | | of Little Albert + Skinner's | | | box (external forces we have | | | no control over) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | psychic determinism - | - belief that behaviour is | | | caused by unconscious | | | psychodynamic conflicts we | | | cannot control | | | | | | - e.g. Freud emphasised | | | influence of innate | | | biological drives + | | | instincts - behaviour | | | determined by unconscious | | | conflicts repressed in | | | childhood (even random 'slip | | | of tongue' is influence of | | | unconscious) | | | | | | - e.g. psychosexual stages - | | | each stage characterise by | | | conflict which if unresolved | | | leads to fixation in | | | adulthood | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ scientific emphasis on causal explanations - - basic principle of science is every event has cause + causes can be explained by general laws (hard determinism) - causes/laws important as they allow to predict/control future events - in psychology, lab experiment ideal of science - allows demonstration of causal relationships evaluation - +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | strengths | limitations | +===================================+===================================+ | - but Libet's findings showing | - brain scan evidence does not | | brain is involved in | support free will but | | decision-making is not | supports determinism | | surprising | | | | - Libet told participants to | | - just because action comes | choose random moment to flick | | before conscious awareness of | wrist while he measured brain | | decision to act doesn't mean | activity - had to day when | | no decisions to act - just | felt conscious will to move | | that decision to act took | | | time to reach consciousness | - found unconscious brain | | | activity leading up to | | - our conscious awareness of | conscious decision to move | | decision-making is simply a | came half second before | | 'read-out' of our unconscious | participant consciously felt | | decision-making | they had decided to move | | | | | - so this evidence is not | - may suggest most basic | | appropriate as challenge of | experiences of free will | | free will | actually determined by brain | | | before we aware of them | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - strength of free will is | - limitation of determinism is | | practical value | position of legal system on | | | responsibility | | - common sense that we exercise | | | free choice in daily lives | - hard determinism stance is | | but even just thinking we do | individual choice is not | | can improve mental health | cause of behaviour - not | | | consistent with how legal | | - Roberts looked at adolescents | system operates | | who had strong belief in | | | fatalism (lives decided by | - in law, offenders held | | external events) + found | responsible for actions - | | these adolescents | main principle of legal | | significantly greater risk of | system is that defendant | | depression | exercised free will in | | | committing crime | | - also people who exit external | | | rather than internal locus of | - suggests in real world, | | control less likely to be | determinist arguments do not | | optimistic | work | | | | | - suggests even if we don't | | | have free will, fact that we | | | believe we do may have | | | positive impact on mind + | | | behaviour | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - determinist approaches helped | - | | establish psychology as | | | science | | | | | | - by adopting language + | | | methods of natural sciences | | | through advent of | | | behaviourism, psychology | | | emerged as credible 'human | | | science' | | | | | | - hard determinism has produced | | | effective real-world | | | applications like treatments, | | | therapies, behavioural | | | interventions (medicine | | | correcting neurochemical | | | imbalance in brain in OCD) | | | | | | - but free will has face | | | validity + makes cognitive | | | sense so accepted by many | | | people | | | | | | - free will also liberating for | | | people if they come from | | | criminal background or mental | | | disorder family - not 'doomed | | | to repeat' same behaviour | | | | | | - if psychology wants to be | | | alongside natural sciences, | | | determinist accounts better | | | but common-sense experience | | | better understood by free | | | will | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ nature-nurture debate - - nature-nurture debate looks at whether our behaviour is more influenced by nature (genes) or nurture (environmental influences) - any behaviour arises from combination of both (e.g. eye colour only 0.80 heritable) - so debate looks at how processes of nature + nurture work together + link so does not make to separate influences of two as can't predict behaviour separately (interactionist approach) +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | e.g. attachment | - Bowlby claimed attachment | | | type is determined by | | | warmth + continuity of | | | parental love (env. | | | influence) | | | | | | - Kagan said baby's innate | | | personality (temperament) | | | also affects attachment | | | (nurture) - so env. + | | | heredity interact | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ nature - - nature - any influence on behaviour that is genetic/heredity (e.g. action of genes, neurochemistry, neurotransmitters, hormones, neurological structures) - nativists like Descartes argued all characteristics + some knowledge innate - psychological characteristics intelligence, personality + physical like eye colour + height caused by genes - heredity - genetic transmission of both mental + physical characteristics from one generation to next nurture - - nurture refers to influence of experience + environment - any non-genetic influence on behaviour (prenatal in womb, cultural/historical, biological like food affecting growth) - empiricists like Locke said mind is bank slate at birth which then shaped by env. - Lerner identified different levels of env. - incl. prenatal factors (smoking) or psychological (music) affects foetus - development is influence postnatally by social conditions grow up in diathesis-stress model - - diathesis-stress model suggests behaviour is caused by biological or env. vulnerability (diathesis) which is only expressed when couple with biological or env. 'trigger' (stressor) - e.g. person who inherits genetic vulnerability for OCD may not develop disorder but combined with psychological trigger (traumatic experience) may cause disorder to appear epigenetics - - epigenetics is change in our genetic activity without changing genes themselves - happens through life + caused by interaction with env. - lifestyle factors/events (e.g. smoking, diet, trauma + war) leave 'marks' on our DNA (genes) which switch genes on or off - can change way genes are expressed - epigenetic changes can influence genetic codes of children + their children - third element into nature-nurture debate, life experiences of previous generations measuring nature + nurture - - degree to which two people similar on a trait can be shown by correlation coefficient + is called concordance - concordance quantifies extent to which trait genetic - called heritability (proportion of differences between individuals in population due to genetic variation) - figure of.01 (1%) shows genes have no contribution while 1.0 (100%) showed gene only reason for individual differences - intelligence has coefficient of 0.5 + so influence of nature + nurture equal (Plomin) evaluation - +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | strengths | limitations | +===================================+===================================+ | - use of adoption studies | counterpoint - | | | | | - adoption studies useful as | - research suggest this | | they separate competing | approach may be misguided - | | influences of nature + | nature + nurture not two | | nurture - if adopted children | entities that can simply be | | similar to adoptive parents | pulled apart | | env bigger influence + if | | | similar to biological ones | - Plomin suggested people | | than genetic factors dominate | create own 'nurture' by | | | actively selecting env. more | | - meta-analysis of adoption | appropriate for their | | studies by Rhee + Waldman | 'nature' | | found genetic influences | | | accounted for 41% of variance | - thus naturally aggressive | | in aggression | child likely to feel | | | comfortable with similar | | - shows how research can | behaving children + choose | | separate influences of | their env accordingly - then | | nature + nurture | chosen companions further | | | influence development | | | (niche-picking) | | | | | | - suggests doesn't make sense | | | to look at evidence of either | | | nature or nurture | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - support for epigenetics | - nativists believe genetic | | | makeup determines | | - example of how env. effects | characteristics with little | | can span generations through | env. input | | epigenetics can be seen in | | | WW1 - in 1994, Nazis blocked | - extreme determinist stance | | food distribution to Dutch | has led to controversy + | | people + 22,000 died of | eugenics policies - approach | | starvation | used by Hitler + Nazis: | | | application of selective | | - Susser + Lin report women who | breeding to remove those | | became pregnant during famine | considered inferior from gene | | had low birth weight babies - | pool | | more interesting that these | | | babies 2x likely to develop | - empiricists suggest behaviour | | schizophrenia when they grew | can be changed by altering | | up than typical population | env. conditions - behaviour | | | shaping has application in | | - Supports view that life | therapy where desirable | | experiences of previous | behaviours selectively | | generations can leave | reinforced | | epigenetic markers that | | | influence health of offspring | - in extreme, may lead to | | | advocation of model society | | | that manipulates citizens | | | using these techniques (like | | | George Orwell 1984 novel | | | where authoritarian | | | government exerts systematic | | | control of our behaviour) | | | | | | - so both positions, taken to | | | extremes, may have negative | | | consequences for society so | | | moderate, interactionist | | | position is preferred | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - debate has real-world | | | application | | | | | | - research shows OCD highly | | | heritable - e.g. Nestadt put | | | heritability rate at.76 | | | | | | - such understanding can inform | | | genetic counselling as | | | important to understand high | | | heritability doesn't mean | | | it's inevitable individual | | | will develop disorder - so | | | people with high genetic risk | | | due to family background can | | | get advice about likelihood + | | | prevention of disorder (e.g. | | | learn to manage stress | | | | | | - shows debate not just | | | theoretical but also | | | important at practical level | | | to understand interaction of | | | nature + nurture | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ holism + reductionism - - holism-reductionism debate looks at whether better to understand human behaviour as a whole or by breaking it down - no continuum between holism + reductionism holism - - holism - theory which proposes it only makes sense to study an indivisible system rather than its constituent parts (subdividing experience into smaller units is inappropriate) - Gestalt argued 'whole is greater than sum of its parts' - to understand essence of person - Humanists focus on individual experiences by using qualitative methods to investigate self where themes analysed rather than breaking concept into component behaviours reductionism - - reductionism - belief that human behaviour best understood by breaking it down into its constituent parts - based on scientific principle parsimony - all phenomena should be explained using simplest (lowest level) principles - levels of explanation - idea that there are several ways (levels) to explain behaviour A diagram of a pyramid Description automatically generated  biological reductionism - - biological reductionism attempts to explain behaviour at lowest biological level, in terms of genes, hormones etc. (incl. neurochemical/physiological levels + evolutionary/genetic ones) - biologically reductionist arguments work backwards - e.g. drugs increasing serotonin effective in treating OCD so low serotonin may be cause of OCD (working backwards) environmental reductionism - - environmental reductionism attempts to explain all behaviour in terms of stimulus-response links that have been learned through experience - behaviourist approach proposes all behaviour learned through interactions with env - conditioning, simple stimulus-response links, reducing behaviour to basic elements - e.g. learning theory of attachment reduces love to learned association between person doing feeding + food resulting in pleasure evaluation - +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | strengths | limitations | +===================================+===================================+ | - reductionist approaches often | counterpoint - | | form basis of a scientific | | | approach | - reductionist approaches | | | accused of oversimplifying | | - to conduct well-controlled | complex phenomena, reducing | | research, need to | validity | | operationalise variables to | | | break target behaviours down | - gene + neurotransmitter | | into constituent parts - | explanations don't incl. | | makes it possible to conduct | analysis of social context - | | experiment or record | may be where behaviour | | observations (behavioural | derives its meaning | | categories) in objective + | | | reliable way | - e.g. physiological processes | | | of pointing finger will be | | - e.g. Strange Situation | same regardless of context | | operationalised component | but analysis of these will | | behaviours like separation | not tell us why finger | | anxiety | pointed - might be to draw | | | attention to person/object or | | - this scientific approach | act of aggression | | gives psychology greater | | | credibility, placing it on | - so reductionist explanation | | equal terms with natural | can only ever form part of an | | sciences | explanation | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | - holism approach lacks | | | practical value | | | | | | - holistic accounts of | | | behaviour hard to use as they | | | become more complex | | | presenting practical dilemma | | | | | | - from humanistic perspective, | | | several factors contribute to | | | depression (past, present | | | relationships, jobs, family) | | | so hard to know which most | | | influential - hard to know | | | which to prioritise as basis | | | of therapy | | | | | | - so holistic accounts may lack | | | practical value | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - | - reductionism not useful as | | | some behaviours only be | | | understood at higher level | | | | | | - often aspects of social | | | behaviour only emerge within | | | group context + can't be | | | understood through | | | individuals - e.g. conformity | | | to social roles in | | | prisoners/guards in Stranford | | | prison experiment couldn't be | | | understood by observing | | | participants as individuals - | | | interaction between people + | | | behaviour of group important | | | | | | - no conformity gene so social | | | processes like conformity | | | only be explained at level at | | | which they occur | | | | | | - suggests for some behaviours | | | higher level explanations (or | | | even holistic ones) provide | | | more valid account | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - | - reductionist would argue we | | | are thinking machines + | | | physical events in body are | | | equivalent to mental events | | | in mind (extreme biological | | | reductionism) | | | | | | - forms basis of cognitive | | | neuroscience - what we | | | think/feel associated with | | | physical processes in brain | | | so knowledge of | | | localisation + microprocesses | | | in brain reveal material | | | basis of consciousness | | | | | | - but neuroscientists struggle | | | to explain subjective | | | experience of same neural | | | process - e.g. thinking about | | | colour blue involves same | | | region + activity in brain as | | | red but thought we experience | | | is different | | | | | | - this is 'explanatory gap' + | | | suggests thinking at least | | | one step beyond what's | | | happening in brain - so | | | mind + body/brain not one + | | | same but influence each other | | | in many complex ways that are | | | not yet fully understood | | | | | | - suggest not all aspects of | | | consciousness, particularly | | | individual differences in | | | experience, can be explained | | | by brain activity | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ idiographic + nomothetic approaches - idiographic approach - +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | idiographic approach to | - idiographic approach is an | | psychological investigation - | approach to research that | | | focuses more on individual | | | case as means of | | | understanding behaviour | | | rather than aiming to | | | formulate general laws of | | | behaviour | | | | | | - research often small - single | | | case | | | | | | - may include family/friends | | | info but focus is on | | | obtaining individual detail | | | | | | - generalisations can be made | | | but initial focus is | | | understanding individual | +===================================+===================================+ | qualitative research - | - mostly qualitative | | | | | | - based on first-hand accounts | | | from small no. of people | | | (case studies) | | | | | | - participants interviewed in | | | depth (fairly unstructured) + | | | focus may be on particular | | | facet of human behaviour | | | | | | - data then analysed + emergent | | | themes identified | | | | | | - conclusions may help others | | | going through similar | | | experiences or may help | | | mental health professionals | | | determine best practice | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | examples in psychology - | - Rogers investigated | | | self-development incl. role | | | of unconditional positive | | | regard - was derived from | | | in-depth conversations with | | | clients in therapy | | | | | | - Freud's careful observations | | | of individuals basis of his | | | explanations of human | | | nature - case of Little Hans | | | used to explain how phobia | | | develops | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ nomothetic approach - +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | nomothetic approach to | - nomothetic approach is an | | psychological research - | approach to research that | | | aims to study human behaviour | | | through development of | | | general principles + | | | universal laws | | | | | | - large + varied groups studied | | | to make generalisations + | | | establish general | | | principles/norms of behaviour | | | (theories) | | | | | | - can then be applied to | | | individual situations such as | | | drug therapy | +===================================+===================================+ | quantitative research - | - seeks to quantify (count) | | | human behaviour | | | | | | - uses more 'scientific method' | | | | | | - hypotheses formulated | | | | | | - samples of people/animals | | | assessed perhaps via | | | structures questionnaire or | | | using psychological tests | | | | | | - numerical data produced is | | | analysed for statistical | | | significance | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | examples in psychology - | - Skinner studied animals to | | | develop general laws of | | | learning - looked at one | | | aspect of behaviour in few | | | animals but aimed to create | | | general laws | | | | | | - Roger Sperry's split-brain | | | research may use small sample | | | but involved repeat testing + | | | was basis for understanding | | | hemispheric lateralisation | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ objective vs subjective - +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | idiographic approach | nomothetic approach | +===================================+===================================+ | - subjective - reject | - based on objectivity | | objectivity | | | | - laws of behaviour only | | - individual experience of | possible if methods | | people's unique context | standardised | | important rather than some | | | underlying reality 'out | - this ensures true replication | | there' that is waiting to be | occurs across samples of | | discovered | behaviour + removes | | | contaminating influence of | | | bias | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ evaluation - +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | strengths | limitations | +===================================+===================================+ | - idiographic approach useful | counterpoint - | | as it contributes to | | | nomothetic approach | - idiographic approach still | | | narrow + restricted | | - idiographic uses in-depth | | | qualitative methods which | - meaningful generalisation | | provides global description | can't be made without further | | of individual - may | examples as no adequate | | complement nomothetic | baseline to compare behaviour | | approach by shedding further | | | light or challenging general | - also idiographic methods like | | laws | case studies less | | | scientific - conclusions rely | | - e.g. single cases may | on subjective interpretation | | generate hypotheses for | of researcher + so open to | | further study - HM case | bias | | revealed important insights | | | about normal functioning | - so difficult to build | | which contributes to overall | effective general theories of | | understanding | human behaviours in complete | | | absence of nomothetic | | - even though focus is on fewer | research | | individuals, idiographic | | | approach may still helps form | | | 'scientific' laws | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - both fit aims of science | - nomothetic approach loses | | | understanding of individual | | - nomothetic processes similar | | | to those in natural sciences | - preoccupied with general | | e.g. establishing objectivity | laws, prediction + control so | | through standardisation, | loses whole person | | control + statistical testing | | | | - e.g. knowing 1% lifetime risk | | - idiographic researchers also | of developing schizophrenia | | objectify methods e.g. | tells little about life for | | triangulation used where | someone with disorder - | | findings from range of | understanding subjective | | qualitative studies compared | experience of it might be | | to increase validity - also | useful when devising | | modern qualitative | appropriate treatment options | | researchers reflect on own | | | biases as part of research | - so in search for | | process | generalities, nomothetic | | | approach may fail to relate | | - so both approaches raise | to 'experience' | | psychology's status as | | | science | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - | - two approaches distinct + | | | appropriate in different | | | situations/aims | | | | | | - to make universal claims + | | | general laws, nomothetic | | | methods preferred but to | | | understand unique | | | perspective + generate depth, | | | idiographic suitable | | | | | | - e.g. attachment, Schaffer's | | | stages describe general | | | stages of development | | | (nomothetic) whereas cases | | | studies of neglect highly | | | subjective experience of | | | never having attachment | | | (idiographic) | | | | | | - approaches may also be two | | | ends of continuum + may be | | | used simultaneously + applied | | | to same individual | | | | | | - Milon says when diagnosing | | | personality disorders, | | | clinicians begin with general | | | nomothetic criteria then use | | | this to focus on individual + | | | unique needs - also using | | | idiographic doesn't mean | | | findings can't be generalised | | | | | | - rather than seeing as | | | alternatives, should consider | | | same topic from both | | | perspectives + aim to develop | | | general understanding | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ ethical implications of research studies + theory - - ethical implications - consequences of any research in terms of effects on individual participants or way in which certain groups of people subsequently regarded - may also be consequences on wider societal level - socially sensitive studies are those in which there are potential consequences, either directly for participants in research or for class of individuals represented by research ethical implications + social sensitivity in studies - - e.g. research on LTM in student population unlikely to have consequences for individual participants or broader social groups they represent + for social policies - but study on depression might - e.g. individual participant may reveal personal information later accessed by prospective employer or findings may suggest depressed people never fully recover so are a risk as employee - findings could inform preferred treatment options recommended by NHS A screenshot of a research paper Description automatically generated ethical implications + social sensitivity in studies - planning, conducting studies + handling findings important when looking at social sensitivity: +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | research question - | - question phrasing + | | | investigated can influence | | | interpretation of findings | | | | | | - e.g. Celia + Adrian note how | | | relationship research guilty | | | of heterosexual bias - | | | homosexual relationships | | | judged against heterosexual | | | norms | +===================================+===================================+ | dealing with participants - | - informed consent, | | | confidentiality, | | | psychological harm important | | | in socially sensitive | | | research | | | | | | - e.g. participants in domestic | | | abuse study may worry | | | ex-partner will find out + | | | stressful describing | | | experience | | | | | | - may give informed consent at | | | start but not fully | | | understand research's effect | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | way findings of used - | - way findings used may impact | | | what data they actually | | | collect | | | | | | - e.g. research may give | | | scientific credence to | | | existing prejudice like | | | studies examining ethnic | | | basis of intelligence | | | | | | - media tends to publicise | | | sensitive information - e.g. | | | Owen's research on people in | | | minimally conscious state | | | received lots of media | | | attention as it appeared he | | | had made contact with | | | patients thought to be | | | 'unreachable' | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ evaluation - +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | strengths | limitations | +===================================+===================================+ | - socially sensitive research | counterpoint - | | can have benefits for groups | | | studies | - could be negative | | | consequences for groups being | | - e.g. DSM-1 in 1952 listed | studied which could have been | | homosexuality as 'sociopathic | anticipated | | personality disorder' but | | | removed in 1973 - change | - e.g. research investigating | | credited to Kinsey report | genetic basis of criminality | | based on anonymous interviews | has found 'criminal gene' - | | with over 5000 men about | could mean someone convicted | | sexual behaviour | on basis of having this gene | | | or be excused as cannot be | | - report concluded | held responsible for | | homosexuality typical | wrongdoing | | expression of human sexual | | | behaviour - also included | - so need to carefully consider | | data on interviews with 6000 | possible outcomes + | | women + caused outrage at | consequences when researching | | time as these were topics no | socially sensitive topics | | one discussed | | | | | | - shows importance of research | | | tackling sensitive topics | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - certain groups e.g. | - poor research design may lead | | policymakers rely on research | to erroneous findings which | | related to socially sensitive | once in public arena continue | | research | to have an impact | | | | | - government looks to research | - e.g. even after Burt's | | when developing important | research exposed as fraud, | | social polices e.g. about | 11+ continued to be used as | | childcare, education, | selection tool in parts of UK | | crimes - it is preferrable to | today | | base such polices on | | | scientific research rather | - also access to many | | than politically-motivated | independent schools based on | | views | child's performance in | | | entrance exam taken in year | | - so in UK there are | 6 + likely based on same | | independent groups like ONS | reasoning - genetic potential | | responsible for collecting, | has revealed itself by this | | analysing objective | age | | statistics about UK economy + | | | population - such data in | - so any research on socially | | used in psychological | sensitive topics need to be | | research | planned with greatest care to | | | ensure findings valid because | | - so psychologist have | of enduring effects on | | important role in providing | particular groups of people | | high quality research on | | | socially sensitive topics | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - we can simply avoid doing | - | | socially sensitive research | | | to deal with it | | | | | | - APA reported ethical | | | committees approved 95% | | | non-sensitive proposals but | | | only 50% of sensitive ones - | | | so researchers unlikely to | | | submit sensitive proposals if | | | risk of not being approved + | | | some topics might become even | | | more 'taboo' if | | | under-investigated | | | | | | - ignoring topics not | | | responsible - instead should | | | follow qualitative | | | researchers who more upfront | | | about own biases in | | | reflective in approach - | | | doesn't mitigate impact but | | | makes clear that researcher's | | | interpretation just one | | | interpretation | | | | | | - socially sensitive topics can | | | be researched ethically but | | | should be aware of own biases | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+