Psychntro Ch. 1 (Basics of Psychology and Psychological Perspectives) PDF

Overview Methods of Knowing 1. Tenacity(Based on Experience)- where empirical = evidence *Tenacity = f(experience) ex. Foundation of superstition experience forms evidence and leads to an interpretation of said experience, however that interpretation is subje...

Overview Methods of Knowing 1. Tenacity(Based on Experience)- where empirical = evidence *Tenacity = f(experience) ex. Foundation of superstition experience forms evidence and leads to an interpretation of said experience, however that interpretation is subjective 2. Authority- strict and absolute belief in a higher power with no room for questioning *Authority = f(absolute power) However there is also expertise = f(informational power) which can be questioned and improved 3. Rationalism- use of logic and reasoning, often abstract *Rationalism = f(logic/reasoning) 4. Scientific method = 𝛴 f(experience) + f(informational power) + f(logic/reasoning) - Empirical evidence verified by logical reasoning and reviewed by experts *when making claims, do remember to present evidences to support said claims Assumptions in Science 1. Empiricism→ observable = measurable - Existing in the external world 2. Determinism - cause and effect relationship 3. Regularity - adds on to or creates or explains patterns within the universe 4. Discoverability - expanding on empiricism 5. Rationalism - similar to the method of knowing Basics of Psychology Psychology- scientific study of behavior and mental processes Behavior- Outward actions and reactions Mental Processes- Inward(hidden) actions and reactions *Scientific because observation and study of humans and animals require an absence of bias which can be present within researchers(due to scientific method) The 4 Goals of Psychology 1. Description- observing of all aspects of behavior(Who, What, When and the Circumstances) 2. Explanation- building an idea based on descriptions leading to a theory *Theory- general explanation of a set of observations 3. Prediction- Determining what will happen in the future based on the explanation 4. Control- modifying described behavior from one which is undesirable to one which is desirable Notable Figures and Schools of Thought in Classical Psychology Wilhelm Wundt - One of the earliest pioneers who applied scientific principles to the study of the human mind - Created the process of “Objective Introspection” while working with his students Edward Titchener - One of the students of Wundt who continued his work, and expanded objective introspection by using it on thoughts - Constructed the Structuralist viewpoint, which stated that every experience could be broken down into its individual emotions and sensations *Robert V, Guthrie- First African-American Psychologist William James  - Constructed the Functionalist viewpoint, which focused more on how the mind allows people to conduct behaviors *Both viewpoints were disproven due to their lack of empiricism School of Behaviorism - looks at overt behavior(such as physical actions and physiological actions) - Cause and Effect relationship between overt behavior and external factors(relating to determinism and goal of explanation) - Experiment is required to support the explanation and the results should be consistent in every run(relating to regularity, can lead to goal of prediction and possibly goal of control) *ExtFactor = Stimulus, OvtBehavior = Response → SR Paradigm People Associated with Behaviorism John Watson - Father of Behaviorism - Believed to look at the external factors outside of the five senses - Believed that behavior is learned Ivan Pavlov - Created the blueprints of behaviorism through his experiments of reflexes caused by unrelated stimulus Edward Thorndike - Theorized the Law of effect(behavior followed by pleasant consequences are more likely to be repeated) which became the precursor to operant conditioning B.F. Skinner - Created Operant Conditioning and behavior modification(positive reinforcement) School of Gestalt Psychology - Began with the idea of Rubin’s Vase - Believed that there is something more in between the SR paradigm - The something is known to be  1. Internal 2. Latent 3. Covert(not observable by the 5 Senses) Therefore we will never know what it truly is so we hypothesize, theorize, guess, assume, claim, conceive it - The something is manifested externally(behaviors) Max Wertheimer - Developed Gestalt psychology, and assumed that psychological events cannot be broken down without losing meaning and are better seen as whole - Ideas of Gestalt psychology went on to become cognitive psychology School of Psychoanalysis - The “something” = the psyche Sigmund Freud - Medical doctor - Developed the fundamentals of therapy and abnormal psychology - Freudian psychoanalysis was based on his ideas that his patients who suffered from nervous disorders had repressed urges and desires which in trying to surface, created the disorders - Freud also discussed early childhood experiences being the beginning of current problems in adulthood Iceberg Analogy *libido- psychic energy residing and flowing throughout the iceberg Consciousness- presence, awareness in the eternal reality Pre/Sub-conscious- dormant information which can be awakened through stimulus  Unconscious- buried information which are difficult to bring into consciousness - Proposed that behavior is a product of erratic interplay of unconscious internal forces 2 Basic Instincts of Man : Eros- Sex/Pleasure Instinct Thanatos- Aggressive Instinct - Popularized hypnotherapy and interpretation of dreams *the gatekeeper- translator of the unconscious to the conscious within the brain The Big Three Id- pleasure principle Ego- reality principle Super Ego- perfection principle Carl Jung - Former crowned prince of Freudian Psychoanalysis(was a prized student of Freud) - Formed his own school of analytical psychology - Development towards “growth and individualization” - Main goal to achieve wholeness - Merged eastern and western philosophy - Idea of collective unconscious(patterns within man called archetypes) Jung’s archetypes 1. The Persona- The social masks we wear outside 2. The Shadow- The unconscious sex and life instincts 3. The Anima and Animus- The female part of the male psyche and the male part of the female psyche, respectively 4. The Self- The unified conscious and unconscious of an individual Anna Freud - Freud’s successor for psychoanalysis - Founder of Ego psychology, claimed that ego is the “seat of observation” - Constructed the blueprint for defense mechanisms Melanie Klein - Popularized the idea of child’s play(communication in children occurs through play) Karen Horney - Known for the concept of “penis envy” in women as well as “womb envy” in men - Proposed the concept of “Neurotic relationships” → parental indifference that result to infantile anxiety Neurotic Patterns a. Moving towards people(People Pleasers) b. Moving against people(Bully, Toxic Personality) c. Moving away from people(Anti-social) Alfred Adler - Father of self-help psychology “Psychology should be of, by, for the people” - Coined the term inferiority complex and overcompensation Erik Erikson - Psychosocial stages of development Stages: 1. Trust vs. Mistrust 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt 3. Initiative vs. Guilt 4. Industry vs. Inferiority 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation 8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair Phenomenological Schools of Thought Humanistic Movement - Led by Carl Rogers - Believed that man is innately good - Man has capacity for growth - Freedom to choose one’s own destiny - Ability to control one’s life - Revolutionized counseling and therapy procedures with the practice of 1. Empathy 2. Unconditional positive regards Positive Psychology Movement  - Led by Mihaly Csikzentmihalyi - Gave rise to virtues and positive traits - Based in western educated independent rich and democratic(WEIRD) countries Existential Psychology Movement - Existing with authenticity Transpersonal Psychology - Connectedness with the universe - “Everything happens for a reason” Modern Psychological Perspectives *difference between perspective and school of thought: perspective = approach/lens and school of thought is inside a perspective 1. Behavioral Perspective - Rooted from behaviorism, focus on overt behaviors, external environments & cause and effect relationships - Also focuses on conditioning as well as operant conditioning - Everything is learned *Tabula Rasa- belief that when one is born, they are a blank slate and the immediate extended environment begins shaping the person 2. Psychodynamic Perspective - Freudian roots, focus on the unconscious mind and early childhood experiences 3. Phenomenological/Humanistic Perspective - Focus on free will, people’s ability to run their own lives and ideas of self-actualization 4. Cognitive Perspective - Best way to understand behavior is to see how one processes information - Focus on memory, thought, and use of information subsection of cognitive neuroscience- study of physical workings of the brain, use of MRI & PET scans 5. Sociocultural Perspective  -focus on groups, social roles, rules of social actions & relationships as well as, cultural norms, values, and expectations; main study being that of effects of people on one another 6. Biological Perspective -focus on human and animal behavior being a direct result of the body's inner workings, also focus on links between genetics, diseases, and behavior 7. Evolutionary Perspective -focus on universal mental characteristics based on biology and evolution of humans Psychological Professions 1. Psychologist - no medical training but has a doctorate degree - often choose a specific field to work in - Conduct research(Basic and Applied) 2. Psychiatrist - Medical degree and physician - Specializes in treatment of psychological disorders 3. Psychiatric Social Worker - Field of Social Work - Focus on environmental conditions Psychology’s Scientific Method and Research Method 1. Perceiving the question - To notice something and requiring an explanation(derived from the goal of description) 2. Forming a Hypothesis - Forming an educated guess and making a statement which can be tested(related to the goals of description and explanation) 3. Testing the Hypothesis - Designing an experiment or a methodology, depending on the kind of expected results, and executing it 4. Drawing Conclusions - Analyzing and discussing the results of the experiment and whether they were correct or not(related to the goal of Prediction)  5. Reporting the Results - Putting out the details of your research and displaying all strengths and weaknesses for other researchers to possibly work on Descriptive Methods 1. Naturalistic Observation-observing behavior in a normal/natural environment PROS: Provides a realistic picture to the researchers, and can observe behavior in a natural setting CONS: Observer Effect(subjects who know they're being observed often don't act normal), Observer Bias(the research selectively picks up information which is important to him and leaves the rest behind) *Participant observation- the researcher disguises themself within the research group and observes them from within 2. Laboratory Observation- observing behavior in a controlled environment(control of variables) PROS: Some set-up tend to be easier to set up within a lab, better degree of control CONS: Artificial setups may result in artificial behavior 3. Case Study- One individual is studied in great detail PROS: Immense amount of detail is provided CONS: Minimal to zero application ability 4. Surveys- Series of questions regarding the research topic to be answered by a group of people PROS: Private information can be easily provided since surveys are usually anonymous, and data can be provided from hundreds of people CONS: Researchers have to be very careful about who they survey so as to not taint or skew data, accuracy of data may be off since people may perjure their answers, courtesy bias Correlations - Measure of the relationship between two or more variables *variable- anything that can change or vary Correlation coefficient- represent the direction of the relationship and its strength * if closer to 1, the stronger it is *if negative it is inversely proportional, if positive it is proportional Ethics of research with people 1. Rights and well being of participants should be weighed against the study's value to science 2. Participants must be allowed to make an informed decision about participation 3. Deception must be justified 4. Participants may withdraw from the study at any time 5. Participants must be protected from risks or told explicitly of risk 6. Investigators must debrief participants, telling the true nature of the study and expectation of results 7. Data must remain confidential 8. If for any reason a study results in undesirable consequences for the participant, the researcher is responsible for detecting and removing, or correcting, these consequences.