Psych Study Guide Exam 3 PDF

Chapter 9: Human Development: What is Developmental Psychology? Developmental psychology is the scientific study of how and why human beings change over the course of their life. This field examines physical, cognitive, and social changes from infancy through old age. Critical Periods of Developm...

Chapter 9: Human Development: What is Developmental Psychology? Developmental psychology is the scientific study of how and why human beings change over the course of their life. This field examines physical, cognitive, and social changes from infancy through old age. Critical Periods of Development Critical periods are specific times during development when certain skills or abilities are most easily learned. For example, language acquisition is most effective during early childhood. Brain Development Brain development involves the growth and maturation of the brain and nervous system. This includes the formation of neural connections, synaptic pruning, and myelination, which are crucial for cognitive and motor skills. Teratogens Teratogens are substances that can cause birth defects or developmental problems in a fetus. Examples include: Alcohol: Can lead to fetal alcohol syndrome. Thalidomide: A drug that caused limb deformities when taken by pregnant women in the 1950s and 1960s. Preferential-Looking Technique The preferential-looking technique is used to study infants' visual preferences. Infants tend to prefer looking at faces, high-contrast patterns, and objects with complex designs. Attachment and Attachment Styles Attachment is the emotional bond between a child and their caregiver. The four attachment styles are: 1. Secure: Child feels safe and confident. 2. Avoidant: Child is indifferent to the caregiver. 3. Ambivalent: Child is anxious and clingy. 4. Disorganized: Child shows inconsistent and confused behavior. The Strange Situation Test The Strange Situation Test, developed by Mary Ainsworth, assesses attachment styles in infants. It involves a series of separations and reunions with the caregiver. The key part is observing the child's reaction to the caregiver's return. Infants' Reactions in the Strange Situation Secure: Seek comfort from the caregiver and are easily soothed. Avoidant: Avoid or ignore the caregiver. Ambivalent: Show distress and are not easily comforted. Disorganized: Exhibit confused or contradictory behaviors. Piaget’s 4 Stages of Cognitive Development 1. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years): Infants learn through sensory experiences and actions. Object permanence is developed. 2. Preoperational Stage (2-7 years): Children begin to use language and think symbolically, but their thinking is egocentric and lacks logical reasoning. 3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years): Children develop logical thinking about concrete events and understand the concept of conservation. 4. Formal Operational Stage (12+ years): Adolescents develop abstract and hypothetical thinking. Piaget’s Tasks for Moving to the Next Stage Sensorimotor to Preoperational: Development of object permanence. Preoperational to Concrete Operational: Understanding conservation tasks. Concrete Operational to Formal Operational: Ability to think abstractly and hypothetically. Piaget’s Underestimation of Children’s Cognitive Abilities Piaget underestimated children's cognitive abilities by not recognizing that some children can perform tasks earlier than he proposed, and that cognitive development can be more continuous than stage-like. Assimilation vs. Accommodation Assimilation: Integrating new information into existing schemas. Accommodation: Modifying existing schemas to incorporate new information. Theory of Mind Theory of mind is the ability to understand that others have thoughts, feelings, and perspectives different from one's own. It is crucial for social interactions and empathy. Object Permanence Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are not visible. This concept is typically developed during the sensorimotor stage. Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development (Broadly) Erikson proposed eight stages of psychosocial development, each characterized by a specific conflict that must be resolved: 1. Trust vs. Mistrust 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt 3. Initiative vs. Guilt 4. Industry vs. Inferiority 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation 8. Integrity vs. Despair Parenting Styles Parenting styles are categorized based on two dimensions: responsiveness and demandingness. 1. Authoritative: High responsiveness, high demandingness. 2. Authoritarian: Low responsiveness, high demandingness. 3. Permissive: High responsiveness, low demandingness. 4. Neglectful: Low responsiveness, low demandingness. Cultural Implications of Parenting Style Parenting styles can have long-term effects on psychological and emotional well-being. For example, authoritative parenting is often associated with positive outcomes like high self-esteem and social competence, while authoritarian parenting can lead to anxiety and low self-esteem. Chapter 11: Health and Wellbeing: Health Psychology Health psychology is a field that examines how biological, psychological, and social factors influence health and illness. It aims to promote health, prevent illness, and improve healthcare systems. Main Goals of This Field Understanding: Investigate how psychological factors affect health and illness. Prevention: Develop strategies to prevent illness and promote healthy behaviors. Intervention: Design and implement interventions to improve health outcomes. Policy: Influence health policies to enhance public health. Biopsychosocial Model The biopsychosocial model posits that health and illness are the result of an interplay between biological, psychological, and social factors. This model contrasts with the biomedical model, which focuses solely on biological factors. Obesity Obesity is a condition characterized by excessive body fat, which increases the risk of various health problems such as heart disease, diabetes, and hypertension. BMI Classification System & Critiques BMI (Body Mass Index): A measure of body fat based on height and weight. ○ Underweight: BMI < 18.5 ○ Normal weight: BMI 18.5-24.9 ○ Overweight: BMI 25-29.9 ○ Obesity: BMI ≥ 30 Critiques: BMI does not account for muscle mass, distribution of fat, or individual variations in body composition. Biological, Psychological, Social Factors Biological: Genetics, metabolism, hormones. Psychological: Stress, emotional eating, body image. Social: Socioeconomic status, cultural norms, access to healthy food. Dieting Dieting refers to the practice of eating in a regulated and supervised manner to achieve or maintain a controlled weight. Eating Disorder Descriptions & Major Diagnostic Criteria Anorexia Nervosa: Characterized by an intense fear of gaining weight, a distorted body image, and severe restriction of food intake. Bulimia Nervosa: Involves recurrent episodes of binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors such as vomiting, fasting, or excessive exercise. Binge-Eating Disorder: Characterized by recurrent episodes of eating large quantities of food, often rapidly and to the point of discomfort, without regular compensatory behaviors. Stress Stress is the body's response to perceived threats or challenges. It can be acute (short-term) or chronic (long-term). Yerkes-Dodson Law The Yerkes-Dodson Law suggests that there is an optimal level of arousal for performance. Too little or too much arousal can impair performance. Distress vs. Eustress Distress: Negative stress that can lead to anxiety, depression, and health problems. Eustress: Positive stress that can motivate and enhance performance. Stress of Living and Stressors Stressors are events or conditions that cause stress. They can be physical, psychological, or social. Acute vs. Chronic Stress Acute Stress: Short-term stress that arises from specific events or situations. Chronic Stress: Long-term stress resulting from ongoing situations or conditions. Why Do Zebras Not Get Ulcers, But Humans Do? Zebras experience acute stress in response to immediate threats, but they do not experience chronic stress like humans do. Chronic stress in humans can lead to health problems such as ulcers. Examples of Physical Impact of Stress (i.e., Cortisol) Cortisol: A hormone released in response to stress. Chronic high levels of cortisol can lead to health issues such as hypertension, immune suppression, and metabolic disorders. Coping with Stress, Different Forms of Coping Problem-Focused Coping: Addressing the source of stress directly. Emotion-Focused Coping: Managing emotional responses to stress. Social Support: Seeking help and support from others. Relaxation Techniques: Practices such as meditation, deep breathing, and yoga. Chapter 12: Social Psychology: Group Membership Group membership refers to the affiliation with a particular group, which can influence behavior, attitudes, and identity. Favoring Own Groups People tend to favor their own groups (ingroups) over others (outgroups), often leading to ingroup favoritism and outgroup discrimination. Two Important Conditions for Group Formation 1. Interdependence: Members rely on each other to achieve common goals. 2. Shared Identity: Members identify with the group and its values. Ingroups and Outgroups Ingroups: Groups to which an individual belongs and feels a sense of identity. Outgroups: Groups to which an individual does not belong and may feel opposition or competition. Outgroup Homogeneity Effect The tendency to view members of outgroups as more similar to each other than members of ingroups. Social Identity Theory A theory that suggests individuals derive part of their identity from the groups to which they belong, leading to ingroup favoritism and outgroup discrimination. Ingroup Favoritism The tendency to favor members of one's own group over those in other groups. Social Facilitation The tendency for people to perform better on simple tasks and worse on complex tasks when in the presence of others. Deindividuation A psychological state where individuals lose their sense of self-awareness and personal responsibility, often leading to impulsive and deviant behavior. Zimbardo’s Prison Experiment An experiment that demonstrated the power of situational factors and social roles in influencing behavior. Criticisms include ethical concerns and lack of ecological validity. Group Decision Making The process by which groups make decisions, which can be influenced by factors such as group polarization and groupthink. Group Polarization The tendency for group discussions to lead to more extreme positions than those initially held by individual members. Groupthink A phenomenon where the desire for group harmony leads to poor decision-making. Ways to prevent groupthink include encouraging dissenting opinions and having an impartial leader. Conformity and Compliance Conformity: Adjusting behavior or beliefs to align with group norms. Compliance: Agreeing to a request from someone with no authority over you. Asch’s Studies (Line Study) Experiments that demonstrated the power of conformity, where participants conformed to incorrect group judgments about the length of lines. Factors That Affect Conformity Group size Unanimity Cohesion Status Public response Compliance Strategies  Foot-in-the-Door Technique: Starting with a small request to increase the likelihood of agreeing to a larger request. Door-in-the-Face Technique: Starting with a large request that is likely to be refused, followed by a smaller, more reasonable request. Milgram’s Shock Experiments Experiments that demonstrated the power of authority in eliciting obedience. Criticisms include ethical concerns and the artificial nature of the experiment. Aggression Behavior intended to harm another individual, which can be influenced by biological, psychological, and social factors. Helping Behavior/Prosocial Behavior/Altruism Actions intended to benefit others, which can be motivated by empathy, social norms, and personal gain. Attitudes Evaluations of people, objects, or ideas that can be positive or negative. Mere Exposure Effect The tendency to develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar. Explicit and Implicit Attitudes Explicit Attitudes: Attitudes that are consciously held and can be reported. Implicit Attitudes: Attitudes that are unconscious and can influence behavior without awareness. Cognitive Dissonance A psychological state of discomfort caused by holding conflicting beliefs or behaviors, leading to efforts to reduce the inconsistency. Persuasion The process of changing attitudes or behaviors through communication. Attributional Dimensions and Attributional Biases Attributional Dimensions: Internal vs. external, stable vs. unstable, controllable vs. uncontrollable. Attributional Biases: Systematic errors in attributing causes to behavior, such as the fundamental attribution error. Correspondence Bias The tendency to attribute others' behavior to internal factors while underestimating situational influences. Fundamental Attribution Error The tendency to overemphasize personal characteristics and ignore situational factors in explaining others' behavior. Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination Stereotypes: Generalized beliefs about a group of people. Prejudice: Negative attitudes toward a group and its members. Discrimination: Unjustified negative behavior toward a group and its members. Ways Prejudice/Outgroup Bias Can Be Reduced Intergroup contact Cooperation toward common goals Education and awareness Attractiveness & Related Stereotypes The tendency to attribute positive characteristics to attractive individuals, known as the "halo effect." Chapter 13: Personality: Biological and Environmental Factors that Impact Personality Biological Factors: Genetics, brain structure and function, neurotransmitter levels. Environmental Factors: Family, culture, life experiences, social interactions. Temperaments Temperaments are biologically based tendencies to feel or act in certain ways. They are evident in infancy and can influence personality development. While temperaments are relatively stable, they can be shaped by environmental factors over time. How They May or May Not Change Over Time Temperaments can change due to significant life experiences, environmental influences, and personal efforts to modify behavior. However, core temperamental traits often remain consistent throughout life. Five Factor Model (OCEAN) The Five Factor Model, also known as the Big Five, includes: 1. Openness: Creativity, curiosity, openness to new experiences. 2. Conscientiousness: Organization, dependability, discipline. 3. Extraversion: Sociability, assertiveness, enthusiasm. 4. Agreeableness: Compassion, cooperativeness, trust. 5. Neuroticism: Emotional instability, anxiety, moodiness. Advantages and Disadvantages of Trait Theories of Personality Advantages: Provide a clear and measurable way to describe personality, supported by empirical research. Disadvantages: May oversimplify personality, ignore situational influences, and lack explanatory power for personality development. Freud (and His Theory of Personality) Freud's theory of personality includes three components: Id: The primal, unconscious part of the mind that seeks immediate gratification. Ego: The rational part that mediates between the id and reality. Superego: The moral conscience that incorporates societal standards. Anna Freud Anna Freud, Sigmund Freud's daughter, expanded on her father's work and developed the field of child psychoanalysis. She also identified and described various ego defense mechanisms. Ego Defense Mechanisms Projection: Attributing one's own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to others. Rationalization: Justifying behaviors or feelings with seemingly logical reasons. Regression: Reverting to behaviors characteristic of an earlier developmental stage. Repression: Unconsciously blocking unacceptable thoughts or memories from awareness. Abraham Maslow: Hierarchy of Needs Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory that proposes five levels of human needs: 1. Physiological Needs: Basic survival needs like food and water. 2. Safety Needs: Security and protection. 3. Love and Belongingness Needs: Social relationships and affection. 4. Esteem Needs: Self-esteem and recognition. 5. Self-Actualization: Realizing one's full potential and personal growth. Carl Rogers Carl Rogers was a humanistic psychologist who emphasized the importance of self-actualization and unconditional positive regard in personal development. Self-Actualization Self-actualization is the process of realizing and fulfilling one's potential and capabilities. Measures of Personality Multiple measures are used to assess personality to capture its complexity and ensure reliability and validity. These measures include projective tests, objective tests, and behavioral observations. Projective Tests Projective tests assess personality by analyzing responses to ambiguous stimuli. They aim to uncover unconscious thoughts and feelings.  TAT (Thematic Apperception Test): Participants create stories based on ambiguous pictures. Rorschach Inkblot Test: Participants describe what they see in a series of inkblots. Objective Tests Objective tests use standardized questions and scoring to assess personality traits. PAI (Personality Assessment Inventory): Measures various aspects of personality and psychopathology. MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory): Assesses personality traits and psychopathology. Behavioral Observations Behavioral observations involve assessing personality based on observed behaviors in natural or controlled settings.