Psych Notes PSY1005S 2024 PDF

**Psych Notes** **PSY1005S** **Gabi Labuschagne** **\ ** **[Quantitative Research:](#Quantitative)** [page 3-7](#Quantitative) [**Qualitative Research:** page 8-16](%5Cl) [**Intelligence:** page 17-23](%5Cl) [**Consciousness:** page 24-34](%5Cl) [**Personality Theories:** page 35-42](%5Cl)...

**Psych Notes** **PSY1005S** **Gabi Labuschagne** **\ ** **[Quantitative Research:](#Quantitative)** [page 3-7](#Quantitative) [**Qualitative Research:** page 8-16](%5Cl) [**Intelligence:** page 17-23](%5Cl) [**Consciousness:** page 24-34](%5Cl) [**Personality Theories:** page 35-42](%5Cl) [**Motivation and Emotion:**page 43-52](%5Cl) [**Social Psychology:**page 53-62](%5Cl) []{#Quantitative.anchor}***[\ ]*** ***[QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH]*** **Research is divided into Qualitative and Quantitative Research** **Qualitative Research** is used to get an in depth understanding of something **Quantitative Research** can be used for prediction and causation Goals of **Quantitative Research**: 1\. Description 2\. Prediction 3\. Identify causes 4\. Explaining Not all these goals need to be met at all times Examples of **Quantitative Studies** include: - **Case Studies** - Examines one subject in detail - subjective - Cannot establish cause and effect - **Naturalistic Observations** - Behaviour observed in naturally occurring setting - Presence can affect behaviour - Cannot establish cause and effect - Surveys - Can have misleading results - Correlational Studies - Examines strength of associations between variables - Correlation does not equal causation - Only measure, do not manipulate variables - Correlation has strength and direction (-1 to +1 and positive to negative) - Third variables can affect the study - Experimental Studies - Variables are manipulated and effects on other variables are measured - Requires careful design - Best method for cause and effect **[\ ]** **[Good Research Design]** - Hypotheses - Good measurements of variables (construct validity) - Sampling - Design - Data Analyses - Report all findings - Replication (so that more research can be done) **Correlational Studies and Establishing Causality** 1\. Covariation between two variables \- experimenter measures whether one variable changes another variable 2\. Temporal precedence \- variable manipulated by experimenter 3\. Eliminate other possible, plausible explanations \- experimenter controls variables that could affect results *Remember that Correlation does not equal Causation* **Good Experiments have** - [Random Assignment] - A large sample size - Careful planning (variables eliminated) **For controlling variables remember:** Identify Participants Identify the Intervention Define Outcomes **[Quasiexperiments have NO random assignment]** **\ ** **Variables:** IV (Independent Variable) -- manipulated by the experimenter DV (Dependent Variable) -- dependent on IV **[As a researcher - operationally define all your variables for your experiment.]** **[Measurement Scales:]** - Nominal - No numerical value - Eg. Languages or gender - Ordinal - Ranking - Eg. Tv shows - Interval - Numeric but no true zero - Eg. Intelligence or temperature - Ratio - Numerical with true zero - Eg. Age or weight The test score in an experiment is the true score + error. The difference between experimental and control groups is only what the experimenter does to them. **Confounding Variables** - variables that can confuse experiment results as they affect the outcome of the experiment **3 Main Types of Confounding Variables** - Demand Characteristics - Participant picks up cues about the hypothesis or how they're meant to behave - Placebo Effects - The behaviour of the participants change due to expectations - Experimenter Expectancy Effects - The experimenter has bias when dealing with the results or conducting the experiment due to their own expectations **[\ ]** **[ETHICS:]** **Tuskegee Syphilis Study:** - unethical research that significantly influenced the development of ethical standards in human research - in 1932 in Tuskegee, Alabama - the study involved 399 African American men with syphilis and 201 without - they were misled into believing they were receiving treatment. - the study observed the natural progression of untreated syphilis - this was even after penicillin became widely available and effective in 1947 - the men were denied care, leading to widespread criticism - continued until 1972 when a journalist exposed the unethical practices - This, along with other human rights abuses during World War II, led to the creation of ethical guidelines for research, including the Belmont Report. - the men were told they were being treated - treatment was available and the men were denied it **Other ethical issues can include:** - Fraud - Allocation of credit - Sharing of personal data **[\ ]** **[3 Fundamental Principles of Ethics:]** Beneficence - you should always be acting in the best interest of the client or participant Autonomy - Participation in research must be voluntary and no one should be coerced into it or forced to participate Justice -- Participants should receive no form of discrimination whether due to gender, race, ethnicity or any other quality **Informed consent has** - Knowledge - Competence - Volition: the act of making a conscious choice or decision **Consent forms must include:** - Brief Overview - Description of procedures - Risks and inconveniences - Benefits - Costs - Confidentiality - Alternative treatments - Voluntary participation - Questions and further information - Signature SUMMARY: - Idea - Identify hypothesis - Operationalize IV and DV - Choose a research design - Control confounding variables ***[QUALITATIVE RESEARCH]*** *QR is the umbrella term for the methods and techniques used to study social phenomena or action* **QR begins with** - Assumptions/ - a worldview/ - a theoretical lens/ - a study of research problems **(Creswell's) Characteristics of QR:** - Natural setting - Researcher is the key instrument - Multiple sources of data - Inductive data analysis (researchers build their themes etc from the bottom up) - Participants meanings (researchers focus on the participants meaning about the issue) - Emergent design (flexible/evolving) - Theoretical lens - Interpretive inquiry (researchers make an interpretation of what they experience) - Holistic account **Five approaches to QR:** - Grounded theory: Creating a new theory based on data collected from the real world. - Narrative study: Analyzing people\'s stories to understand their experiences. - Case study: Deeply examining one or a few cases in detail. - Ethnography: Studying a group by observing and interacting with them in their natural setting. - Phenomenology: Exploring how people experience and interpret their own lives. **QR is used:** - When we want to explore a new area of study - When a problem needs to be explored - When we need a complex detailed understanding of an issue - When we want to share stories - When we want to write in a literary style - When we want to understand the context in which participants experience a particular issue - As a follow up on quantitative research - To develop theories for a particular phenomena - When quantitative research do not fit the problem - qualitative research requires a strong commitment to research - extensive time in the field collecting data - time consuming process of data analysis - writing long passages - human research without firm guidelines **Designing a Qualitative Study:** - identify an issue or problem to study - read about the topic - ask open ended questions - collect different forms of data - organize and analyze the data - present participants views as well as your own - reflexivity (reflects the history, culture and personal experiences of the researcher) - pay attention to ethical considerations - present accurate accounts of participants views - peer review **A good Qualitative Study:** - rigorous data collection - recognised approach to research - single focus - persuasive writing - ethical - How am I going to collect the data? - How am I going to analyze the data - Methodological congruence **Interviews can be** - Structured - Unstructured - Semi structured **Preparation:** - Prepare questions - Select participants - Schedule - Build rapport - Set up recording - Do not use leading questions **Focus groups:** - Allow for conversation - Allow or flexibility Disadvantages include: - Large amount of data - Transcription can be time consuming - Challenging to schedule - Needs a skilled researcher to guide not dominate **Diary Studies:** - Allows insight into events as they happen - Allows insight into how events progress - Reduces concern of accuracy of memory Disadvantages include: - Diary may alter routines and experiences - No way to ensure participants follow instructions - No way to ensure consistency - Drop out rates are high **Web based data:** - often focused and rich in detail - Anonymity Disadvantages include: - Lying - Too much data - Only reflects views of internet users **Media and text sources:** - Reduces the need to collect new data - No researcher influence - No participant recruiting - Wide range of media Disadvantages include: - Some may be unnecessary or inappropriate - Only very specific questions can be researched **Strength of QR:** - Richness of data - Focuses on context - Gives meaning to thing people say **Information about QR:** - New data can be obtained by engaging people in discussions about the issues being researched - Usually in form of interviews of focus groups - Otherwise they can use pre-existing data such as media or web based data - Instead of hypothesis you use a research question - This impacts the way you collect your data - Research questions are based on previous info - They do not make predictions in the same way that quantitative hypotheses do - Grounded theory uses general questions to gather data - Then a process of analysis begins in the theoretical categories generated from the data - Once you have your research question - How am I going to collect the data - How am I going to analyze the data **\ ** **Semi Structured Interviews** - Semi structured interviews have a few questions relating to the themes - Still flexible - Letting the interviewee guide the direction of the interview **Process of QR:** 1. Research question 2. Selecting partiipantnns 3. Consent 4. Interview schedule - Open questions 5. Pilot interviews 6. Start the recording device - General questions - Prompt questions - Do not assume - Do not guide the interviewee / no leading questions 7. Read notes to the interviewee 8. Check that it is a fair reflection 9. Interviewee can delete any material they are not comfortable with 10. Transcribe the interview - Don't leave anything out - Make it as realistic as possible **Reflexivity** - Identify your potential influence on the outcomes of the research - Do you know the interviewees - Are you bringing your viewpoint to the analysis - Are you being selective - Was the interviewee treated well - Was there a serious power imbalance **Focus Groups** - Interview conducted in a small group - Researcher is the moderator - Popular way for companies to conduct market research - More dynamic than semi structured interviews - Moderator facilitates the discussion rather than conducting an interview - Preparation and post interview activities are still needed - Generates a lot of rich data - Participants can either share key features or be different on these key features - Either friends or strangers - Focus groups are naturalistic - They are also flexible - Produces a large amount of data, this can be a disadvantage - Organizing focus groups can be challenging - Moderating them can also be challenging **Diary Studies:** - Researcher must have clear aims before a diary study - Data asked for must be exact - Either written in intervals - Or when there is a signal - Or lastly when certain events happen to them - Unique insight as events progress - More reliable for memory - Can be more personal - Diary entries might alter due to expectations - No way of ensuring instructions are followed - Some people may omit personal information - High drop out rate **Ethnographic studies:** - Participant observation - A variety of methods (web based data/interviews/case study) - Multiple methods allows for triangulation - Higher credibility - Researcher must practice reflevity - Can be difficult to gain access **Web Based Data:** - Collecting first person accounts that have been posted by indicividuals - Accounts that have already been posted - Rich in detail - Can be very focused - Anonymity might allow people to be more honest - Vast amount of data **Disadvantages:** - People can lie - Research can take very long - Demographics of internet users - Consent about previously posted data - Is it public - If there is any expectation of privacy - Discourse analysis - Already written and printed - No need to recruit participants - No way that researcher can influence the data - Only very specific research questions can be researched only using media - Triangulation is better - identify an issue or problem to study (research question) - read about the topic - select participants - get consent - pilot interviews - schedule the interview - start the recording device - general questions - prompt questions - ask open ended questions - do not assume or ask leading questions - read the notes to the interviewee - interviewee can delete any material they are not comfortable with - transcribe the interview as accurately as possible - collect different forms of data - organize and analyze the data - reflexivity (reflects the history, culture and personal experiences of the researcher) - peer review **Approaches:** - Grounded theory: Creating a new theory based on data collected from the real world. - Narrative study: Analyzing people\'s stories to understand their experiences. - Case study: Deeply examining one or a few cases in detail. - Ethnography: Studying a group by observing and interacting with them in their natural setting. - Phenomenology: Exploring how people experience and interpret their own lives. **A good Qualitative Study:** - rigorous data collection - recognised approach to research - single focus - persuasive writing - ethical **Interviews can be** - Structured - Unstructured - Semi structured **Focus groups:** - **Group interview** - **Researcher is the moderator** - **Naturalistic** - Allow for conversation - Allow for flexibility - dynamic Disadvantages include: - Large amount of data - Transcription can be time consuming - Challenging to schedule - Needs a skilled researcher to guide not dominate **Diary Studies:** - **Clear aims before study** - **Either written in intervals/when there is a signal or during certain events** - Allows insight into events as they happen - Allows insight into how events progress - Reduces concern of accuracy of memory Disadvantages include: - Diary may alter routines and experiences - No way to ensure participants follow instructions - No way to ensure consistency - Drop out rates are high **Web based data:** - **Collecting first person accounts posted by individuals** - **Accounts have already been posted** - often focused and rich in detail - Anonymity Disadvantages include: - Lying - Too much data - Only reflects views of internet users **Media and text sources:** - Reduces the need to collect new data - No researcher influence - No participant recruiting - Wide range of media Disadvantages include: - Some may be unnecessary or inappropriate - Only very specific questions can be researched **[\ ]** ***[INTELLIGENCE]*** - Different cultures have different view on intelligence - IQ tests and the idea of intelligence was previously misused for different political ideologies **Broad Definition:** - problem solving - understanding and learning complex material - adapting to one's environment - mental quickness therefore -- acquiring knowledge, reasoning effectively and adapting to one's environment **Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911)** - focused on genetics/eugenics - believed that genius ran in families and was hereditary - believed that mental capacities were inherited - made physical/sensory measurements on members of eminent family trees - reaction speed, hand strength, sensory acuity, skull size - results had poor predictive power but triggered controversy In South Africa: - in 1920s the Eugenics and Genetics Standing Committee (EGSC) as part of the South African Association for the Advancement of Science (SAAAS) was established - legislated racial categorization and legitimized oppression **Alfred Binet (1857 - 1911)** Tasked with developing an objective intelligence test for school children first workable intelligence test in 1905 His approach: - Test large numbers of children of various age groups - Establish average scores for each age group - Compare a child's performance to the norms He proposed the idea of children having a mental age **Stanford-Binet Test** - revised by Lewis Terman for use in the USA - mostly verbal items and yielded a single IQ score - became a common standard measure in: - Clinical psychology, Psychiatry, Educational counselling - based on the assumption that intelligence was largely hereditary and stable **David Wechsler (1896-1981)** - believed that SB Test relied too much on verbal skills and only had a single score - items and timing were more suitable for children - it did not consider that intellectual performance can deteriorate as a person grew older ***WAIS-R, WISC-IV, WPPSI-R*** - Measures of both verbal and nonverbal abilities: He believed in a single factor of intelligence, but thought that it consisted of specific, interrelated elements 1.Verbal Scale IQ 2.Performance Scale IQ \- Less affected by language and culture 3.Full Scale IQ \- to get a measure of overall intelligence, simply aggregate the capabilities on each of the separate elements **WISC-IV** - 4 specific cognitive domains (indexes) - These contribute to the Full Scale IQ - The 4 index scores are derived from a number of subtests **WISC subtests** - Verbal Comprehension - Similarities - Vocabulary - Comprehension - Matrix Reasoning - Perceptual Reasoning - Picture Concepts - Digit Span **South African Tests:** - The Junior South African Individual Scale (JSAIS-R) 3-7 yrs - The Senior South African Individual Scale (SSAIS-R) 7-16yrs - The South African Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (SAWAIS) 16-69yrs - Psychometrics: the statistical study of psychological tests - How many mental abilities underlie performance? - What is their nature? - Crystallized intelligence - Facts/learnt skills - Fluid Intelligence - Problem solving/creativity/inductive reasoning Crystallized Intelligence improves during adulthood Fluid Intelligence declines in late adulthood **\ ** **Louis Thurstone (1887 -- 1955)** - Argued there was weak evidence for the g factor - Proposed that human mental performance depends on 7 distinct primary mental abilities  **Carroll's Three Stratum Model** - Based on factor analysis of more than 460 data sets - 3 levels of mental skills - General -- g factor - Broad -- fluid and crystallized intelligence, + 6 other basic cognitive functions - Narrow -- nearly 70 specific skills **[Cognitive Process Approaches:]** ***Robert Sternberg (Triarchic Theory of Intelligence)*** - Divides cognitive processes into 3 specific components - Metacomponents (higher order processes eg. Source of individual differences in fluid intelligence) - Performance components (actual mental process eg. Perception/memory retrieval/response generation) - Knowledge-Acquisition Components (allow learning from experiences/individual differences in crystallized intelligence) - Sternberg proposed 3 different forms of intelligence: - Analytical Intelligence (academically orientated problem solving skills eg. Traditional intelligence tests) - Practical Intelligence (skills for coping with every day demands) - Creative Intelligence (coping adaptively with a novel problem) **\ ** **Howard Gardner's 9 different forms of intelligence**  **Emotional Intelligence** - Reading others emotions accurately - Responding to them appropriately - Motivating oneself - Awareness of your own emotions - Regulating and controlling your own emotional responses **The Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT)** - Perceiving emotions - Using emotions to facilitate thought - Understanding emotions - Managing emotions **Issues with IQ testing:** - Traditional IQ tests draw heavily on skills needed to succeed in a Western type society/ cultural bias - Difficult to compare concepts of intelligence across cultures - it could be impossible to create a test that is completely free of cultural bias (Carpenter et al 1990) - Option is to create culture fair tests with less language loading. **Testing Conditions:** - **Static Testing** - traditional approach to testing; emphasizes similarity in testing conditions - **Dynamic Testing** - standard testing is followed up with an interaction with the examiner - Examiner gives the respondent guided feedback on how to improve performance - Examiner then observes how the person utilizes the information **Factors Influencing Intelligence** - Factors related to the child - Genetics - Genotype--Environment Interaction - Gender (average is virtually identical) - The Immediate Environment - Family Environment - School Environment - The Society's Influence - Poverty (children from wealthier homes score better on IQ test than children from poorer homes) - Race/Ethnicity Genetic factors can influence the effects produced by the environment - Accounts for 1/2 to 2/3 of the variation in IQ - No single "intelligence gene" - The greater the degree of genetic relatedness, the stronger the correlation is between the IQ scores of those persons **Summary** 1\. Intelligence is Malleable, 2\. Timing: Critical or Sensitive Period 3\. Intensity: Success influenced by how much time is spent in the program. 4\. Direct provision of academically oriented learning experiences **Gender's role in Intelligence:** Small differences seen in pattern of performance on certain types of tasks, not in general intelligence: Males =\> better on spatial tasks, tests of target-directed skills, and mathematical reasoning Females =\> better at perceptual speed, verbal fluency, mathematical calculation, and precise manual tasks **Reasons:** - Socialization experiences - Beliefs (self/others) - Evolutionary sex role specialization - Biological effects of sex hormones on brain development - Hormonal influences in adulthood **Genius = IQ over 130** **Learning disabilities:** Four-level classification based on IQ scores - Mild (50-70 IQ) - Moderate (35-50 IQ) - Severe (20-35 IQ) - Profound (\>20 IQ) ***[CONSCIOUSNESS]*** **definition = awareness of surroundings, thoughts & feelings that are used to organize your behaviour** *consciousness is a spectrum* - altered states of consciousness included **day-dreaming/hypnosis/meditation/sleep** **SLEEP** light enters the eye -\> SCN (hypothalamus) -\> pineal gland -\> secrete melatonin sleep is - controlled by circadian rhythms - highly variable - influenced by lifestyle factors - made up of **rapid eye movement (REM)** and **non-rapid eye movement (NREM)** - necessary for - restoration - memory consolidation - emotion regulation young adult needs 7-9 hours p/night & the amount of sleep needed decreases with age **REM is** - Active type of sleep - Where most dreams occur - Voluntary muscles are inhibited **NREM is** - Deeper - More restful - Free to move around **\ ** **NREM stages:** **N1 (light sleep)** - Brain wave activity slows - Some dreaming - Hypnic jerks - **[Theta waves increase]** - **[Alpha waves fall away]** **N2** - Deeper sleep - Temp drops - HR slows - Breathing shallow and irregular - **[Brain waves slow]** - Sleep spindles seen on EEG - **[Mostly theta waves]** **N3 (deep sleep)** - **[Slowest and deepest brain waves]** - Slow wave sleep (SWS) = deep sleep - Lowest level of bodily functioning - **[Mostly delta waves]** - Growth hormone released for children **Night Terrors** - Occur during NREM (N3) sleep - Little dream recall **Somnambulism (sleep walking)** - Occurs during N3 - Most common in children - Sleep deprivation increases chances **NREM is necessary for** - redistribution of memory traces from hippocampal networks to the neocortex - weakly potentiated synapses are eliminated - physical restoration and mood regulation **REM** - Body temp increases - Eyes move rapidly - HR increases - **[Mostly beta waves]** - Vivid/strange/emotional dreams **REM is necessary for** - long term potentiation (long lasting strengthening of synaptic connections ie. Memory consolidation) - dreaming - restoration of brain function **Nightmares** - frequently occur during REM **REM Behaviour Disorder (acting out dreams)** - occurs during REM - most common in elderly sleep cycle: 90 min average cycle, approx. 4-5 cycles a night **N1** -\> **N2** -\> **N3** -\> **N2** -\> **REM** , repeat - would usually wake **after REM** - beginning of the night = **SWS longer** and **REM** **shorter** - later **SWS is shorter** and **more** **REM** **SLEEP DISORDERS** chronotypes = morning or evening types **narcolepsy** chronic neurological disorder, characterized by disturbances in the brain's regulation of sleep-wake cycles **4 hallmark symptoms:** - excessive daytime sleepiness - cataplexy (sudden, brief loss of muscle control, often triggered by strong emotions like laughter or excitement) - sleep paralysis - hypnagogic hallucinations (vivid, dream-like sensations or images that occur as a person is falling asleep) **other symptoms:** - sleep seizure (seizure during sleep) - going from wakefulness to REM - linked to decreased neurotransmitter hypocretin **insomnia** - primary or secondary (secondary is due to stress/anxiety/behaviour etc.) - can be treated with medication - best treatment is cognitive behavioural therapy for insomnia (CBT-I) **CBT-I is** - stimulus control (bed only for sleep) - sleep consolidation (calculating actual sleep time) - sleep hygiene (pre-bedtime behaviour and environment) - relaxation (deep breathing) - cognitive therapy (dealing with anxious thoughts about sleep) **\ ** **PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS** *psychoactive substances = **chemical substances** that **alter** thinking/perception/memory or a combination* **substance use:** - use of any psychoactive substance **substance abuse:** - excessive or improper use (exceeds healthy use) **substance addiction:** - maladaptive pattern of use with social/health consequences (compulsive & uncontrollable need to use a substance) **substance dependence:** - physical reliance on a substance (physical and/or psychological symptoms, usually occurs with addiction) *substance use disorder (SUD) = broad clinical term used to describe a range of problematic behaviours/symptoms related to the use of drugs or alcohol. Encompasses both substance abuse and dependence (DSM-5)* **medical use of substances:** - pain killers - sleep medications - antianxiety medication - antidepressants **recreational use of substances:** - caffeine - nicotine - methamphetamine - cannabis **consequences:** - physical health problems - dependence and addiction - cognitive impairment - mental health problems - overdose/death - negatively impacted social functioning **Aetiology of SUD** **Family Factors:** increased risk with - family dysfunction - poor parental monitoring - parental permissiveness decreased risk with - family rules and parental monitoring - safe substance use role models **Biological Factors:** genetic predisposition linked to susceptibility to addiction **Psychological Factors:** - personality traits - poor psychosocial skills - low self-esteem - mental disorders **Cultural Factors:** - historical context - cross-cultural variations - symbolism and meaning **Socioeconomic Factors:** - unemployment - criminal behaviour - low educational attainment - high trauma and violence rates - socioeconomic disparities **\ ** **Social and Environmental Factors:** - peer influence - media exposure - accessibility - social pressure **dependence** can be: - **physical** (body adapting and needing the drug to function normally) - or **psychological** (cognitive attachment, perceived need for the substances effects) **physical** - **Neurotransmitter activation** - substance use = release of dopamine in the mesolimbic pathway in the brain - triggers the reward pathway = good feelings - brain decreases the number of dopamine receptors = drug tolerance - **Drug tolerance** - Higher doses need to achieve the same effect - **Withdrawal symptoms** - Body tries to adjust to the absence of the drug due to drug removal - Severity and duration can be influenced by duration of use/individual differences/dosage - Negative Reinforcement - To stop feeling withdrawal symptoms person uses again only certain drugs cause physical dependency **psychological** - **Psychological Cravings** - Desire to use the drugs for effect - Can be triggered by various things - **Classical Conditioning** - Triggers become associated with substance use due to repeated pairing - **Cognitive and Emotional Aspects** - Emotional attachment to the effects - Belief that the drug is necessary for functioning - Cognitive processes related to perceived benefits of the drug - **Positive Reinforcement** - Increased use to feel the same effect as before all drugs can cause psychological dependency and no withdrawal from psychological dependency (can last forever) **Categories of Psychoactive Drugs** **Stimulants** = increase functioning of central nervous system (CNS) - Decrease appetite - Increase in - Heart rate - Blood pressure - Arousal and alertness - functioning of nervous system (NS), CNS and sympathetic NS **Long term consequences:** - trigger underlying mental health issues - sleep difficulties - cognitive impairment - cardiovascular effects **results in:** activation of dopamine and norepinephrine pathways **Examples:** Nicotine, cocaine, caffeine, methamphetamine **Depressants** = decrease functioning of CNS - impaired motor skills and coordination - increased sedation/relaxation - reduced reaction times/thinking speed - mixing with other depressants can result in overdose **Long term consequences:** - depressive symptoms - sleep difficulties - cognitive impairment - physical effects (withdrawal/sexual dysfunction) **results in:** enhanced effects of GABA, reduction in neuronal firing **Examples:** alcohol, benzos, barbiturates **Hallucinogens** = alter perceptions/sensations - altered perception - hallucinations - sensory changes - physical effects (increased body temp, appetite loss, numbness) - profound distress or anxiety **Long term consequences:** - trigger underlying mental health issues - sleep difficulties - cognitive impairment - Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder (HPPD) **Results in:** - Disrupted serotonin signalling in the brain - increased serotonin in certain regions that can lead to hallucinations **Examples:** LSD, psilocybin **Opioids** = interact with opioid receptors in the brain to decrease pain (sometimes classed as depressants) - similar effects to depressants but different mechanism - pain relief - euphoria and relaxation - increased drowsiness and sedation - can cause respiratory depression (reduced rate and depth of breathing) **Long term consequences:** - high risk dependence and overdose - sleep difficulties - changes in mood - increased pain sensitivity - cognitive impairment **Results in:** - activation of opioid receptors inhibits the transmission of pain signals **Examples:** Morphine, codeine, tramadol, heroin **Alcohol** - commonly used **depressants** - can cause both **physical** and **psychological** dependence - chronic alcohol abuse can lead to liver damage/vitamin B12 deficiency/pancreatitis/weakened immune function **Cannabis** - tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) - **stimulant/depressant** or **hallucinogen** - high risk of **psychological** dependence - long term negative effects on cognition **Nicotine** - addictive - **stimulant** - **physical** and **psychological** dependence - long-term health effects include, potential cancer, lung issues, hypertension **Amphetamines** - **stimulant** - can cause **psychological** and **physical** dependence - found in Benzedrine/methedrine/adderall (prescribed medications) - also in methamphetamine (tik/meth) - nausea/vomiting/high BP/stroke/psychosis **Cocaine** - high risk of **physical** and **psychological** dependence - increases dopamine - **stimulant** - can result in heart attacks, strokes, death, hallucinations, paranoia **Tranquilizers** - **depressant** - calming, reacts with alcohol - potential overdose, withdrawal can result in insomnia, seizures, anxiety - **psychological** and **physical** dependence **Opiates and Opioids** - morphine/heroin - interactions with other depressants can be deadly - long term lower pain tolerance/respiratory issues/mental health difficulties/hormonal imbalances - **physical** and **psychological** dependence opiates = natural compounds from opium poppy opioids = broad category that includes natural opiates and synthetic drugs that act on opioid receptors **MDMA** - 3-4 methylenedioxymethamphetamine - **stimulant** - can be deadly - **physical** and **psychological** dependence - technical an amphetamine **Nyaope/Whoonga** - high **physical** and **psychological** dependence - intense withdrawals - infection/depression/hallucinations - mixture of low-grade heroin/marijuana/drain cleaner/ARVs/rat poison **\ ** ***[PERSONALITY THEORIES]*** definition = psychological qualities that contribute to an individuals distinctive patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving Personality psychologists aim to - Describe the structure - Study individual differences [5 approaches to personality:] - Trait - Psychodynamic - Humanistic - Social cognitive - Biological A personality trait is a relatively stable predisposition to behave in a certain way (eg. Extraversion) *NB: it's on a spectrum* Allport listed approx. 200 traits Cattell reduced them to 16 factors **Big Five Model:** 5 traits: - Openness to experience - Conscientiousness - Extraversion - Agreeableness - Neuroticism Mischel argued that behaviours are determined more by situations (situationism) than personality traits The current view is that behaviour is determined by interaction of personality traits and the situation (interactionism) Traits are: - Easy to measure - Widely applicable - However, they are descriptive not explanatory Big Five traits can be seen by the age of 3 but some parts of personality don't stabilise until later **Freud's Psychodynamic Theory:** 3 levels of awareness - Conscious - Preconscious - Unconscious Two basic drives - Sex - Aggression **Psychosexual stages:** - Oral (0-18 months), dependency - Anal (2-3 years), orderliness, control - Phallic (4-6 years), Oedipus complex - Latency (7-11 years), 2 drives channelled into socially acceptable activities - Genital (12+ years), mature sexuality and relationships *NB: Conflicts in any stage can result in a fixation* **Structure / Level of thought / Operating Principle / Description** - Id, unconscious, pleasure, basic biological needs - Ego, mostly conscious, reality, mediator between id, superego and reality - Superego, mostly unconscious, idealistic, comprises the conscience **Types of defence mechanisms (mental strategies that the mind uses to prevent unacceptable thoughts or impulses from reaching conscious awareness)** - **Repression:** Pushing distressing thoughts out of your conscious mind. - Example: A person who experienced trauma as a child may not remember the event, but the emotions still affect them. - **Projection:** Blaming someone else for feelings or traits you don't want to admit in yourself. - Example: A person who is angry at their boss might accuse their co-worker of being angry and hostile. - **Reaction Formation:** Acting in the opposite way of how you truly feel, because the real feelings make you uncomfortable. - Example: Someone who feels insecure about their appearance might go out of their way to criticize others for being vain. - **Rationalization:** Justifying behaviours or feelings with logical reasons, even if they\'re not the real cause. - Example: A student who cheats on a test may say, \"Everyone else cheats, so it\'s not a big deal.\" - **Displacement:** Redirecting emotions from the original source to a safer or less threatening target. - Example: After being reprimanded by a boss, a person comes home and yells at their spouse. - **Sublimation:** Turning negative impulses into something positive or socially acceptable. - Example: Someone with aggressive tendencies becomes a professional athlete or a surgeon, channelling that energy in a productive way. *NB: Freud's theories have cultural and sexist bias* **Psychodynamic theories after Freud (neo-Freudian approach)** - Place less emphasis on two drives (sex, aggression) and more on social interaction - Place less emphasis on the unconscious and more on the ego **Karen Horney** - Countered Freud's notion of women having penis envy by suggesting that men feel womb envy - Focused on social interactions as the source of adult personality People develop 3 strategies to cope with basic anxiety - Move toward - Move against - Move away Children in toxic environments develop a style - Compliant - Aggressive - Detached **Humanistic** **Carl Rogers** Self-concept - Central to personality development - Most important aspect of personality is the congruence between real self and ideal self  Children raised with unconditional positive regard are able to become - Fully functioning - Characterised by - Openness to experience - Existential living - Organismic trusting - Experiential freedom - Creativity **Humanistic theories have a** - Unique focus on how humans strive to find meaning in life **However** - Don't offer a comprehensive theory of personality - Difficult to test - Little research support - Too idealistic **Social Cognitive Perspective** Explain individual differences in personality in terms of learned beliefs, interpretations of social situations etc. Whether you expect a behaviour to be reinforced influences your feelings/behaviours and therefore personality **Bandura's self-efficacy** - Beliefs concerning one's ability to perform the behaviours needed to achieve desired outcomes It influences - Motivation - Perseverance - Locus of control - Confidence It comes from - Performance experiences - Observational learning - Verbal persuasion - Emotional arousal **Bandura's Reciprocal determinism**  **Contributions of SC theories** - Testable - Supported by research evidence **However,** - Underemphasis personality processes that occur outside awareness **Biological Perspective** **Eysenck's theory** - Personality is linked to specific neurophysiological mechanisms - Extra/introversion can be explained through genetically based differences in the CNS **Gray's Reinforcement sensitivity theory** - Behavioural activation system (BAS) consists of brain structures that lead people to approach stimuli in search of rewards (Go system) - Behavioural inhibition system (BIS) is sensitive to punishment and inhibits behaviour that may lead to danger or pain (Stop system) Extraverts have a stronger BAS, introverts have a more active BIS 40-50% of the Big Five traits are attributable to genetics Nonshared environment has a larger effect on personality than shared environment It is the interaction of multiple genes with each other and the environment that shape personality Temperament is biologically based tendency (feeling and acting a certain way) Buss and Plomin = 3 genetically based dimensions of temperament - Activity Level - Emotionality - Sociability Inhibited infants are startled and distressed by new situations (Kagan) Inhibition at 4 mo. can predict shyness Amygdala easily aroused Personality is nature and nurture Evidence of 5 personality traits in animals (Gosling) Traits include (Gosling and John) - Extraversion - Neuroticism - Agreeableness - Potential Openness to experience - Only chimps showed conscientiousness Studying animals personalities - Provides insight into genetics/biology and personality Gender & Personality Women have higher - Social connectedness - Empathy - Nurturing - Neuroticism Men have higher - Anger - Aggression - Individuality - Autonomy Due to Biological and Sociocultural effects NB: Most personality theories are Eurocentric Collectivist cultures have higher - Agreeableness - And more external locus of control Individualistic cultures have higher - Extraversion - Openness to experience - More internal locus of control Career / Personality tests (Holland) - Eurocentric - Assumes everyone has equal opportunities - Assumes work is freely available **Personality Assessment** **Idiographic approaches** Person-centred approaches (clinical interviews etc) **Nomothetic approaches** Characteristic centred approaches (questionnaires) **Projective measures** Testing unconscious processes (ink blots/ thematic apperception test (TAT)) - Questionable reliability and validity **Objective measures** Structured and standardised personality assessments (16 PF, MMPI-2, NEO-PI-R/NEO-PI-3, SAPI) - Easy to administer - Allows for comparison However - Responses can be biased - Tests can be biased - No objective standard - Dehumanising **Music and Personality** **Reflective and complex (classical, blues, jazz, folk)** - Inventive - Imaginative - Intelligent - Tolerant - Politically liberal - High openness **Intense and rebellious (rock, alt, metal)** - Intelligent - Curious - Physically active - Risk takers - High openness **Upbeat and conventional (country, pop, religious, soundtracks)** - Cheerful - Socially outgoing - Reliable - Helpful - Physically attractive - High extraversion - Agreeableness - Conscientiousness - Low openness **Energetic and rhythmic (rap, hip-hop, funk, soul, EDM)** - Energetic - Talkative - Physically attractive - Forgiving - Politically liberal - High extraversion - Agreeableness Accurate in all except for conscientiousness ***[MOTIVATION AND EMOTION]*** *Motivation is a process that influences the direction/persistence of a goal-directed behaviour* *It is a process by which activities are start/directed/continued so that physical or psychological needs/wants are met* **Components of Motivation:** - **Biological** - Homeostasis - Drives - **Psychological** - Cognition - Personality - **Environmental** - Instinct - Behaviorism - Cognitive revolution - Affective neuroscience **Motivated action can be** - **Towards** (BAS = behavioral activation system, responding to a signal that offers potential reward) - **Away** (BIS = behavioral inhibition system, responding to a feeling of fear or anticipation of pain, avoidance of this behavior) **Types of conflict:** - **Avoidance-approach conflict:** one option is appealing, the other is not - **Approach-approach conflict:** both options are equally appealing - **Avoidance-avoidance conflict:** both options are undesirable **[Approaches to understanding Motivation]** **Psychodynamic** - Unconscious motives affect how we behave - Freuds sexual and aggressive motives - Modern theorists emphasize self-esteem and social belonging as motives - People are not always aware of the factors motivating them **[Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation]** Extrinsic: - Person performs an action because it leads to an external reward (eg. Bonus/tip/prize) Intrinsic: - Person performs an action because it has an internal reward (eg. Makes you feel good about yourself) **[Instincts and Evolution]** **Instinct:** - Inherited characteristic, automatically produces a specific response when exposed to a particular stimulus **[Needs and Drives (Drive reduction theory)]** Need: - Material that is essential for survival (food/water etc.) - All drives are unpleasant but satisfaction of them results in a reduction of the drive and pleasure - Primary Drive: - Survival needs (hunger/thirst) - Secondary/Acquired drive - Learned through experience or conditioning (need for social approval) - Homeostasis - State of internal physiological equilibrium that the body strives to maintain **[McClelland's Theory of Motivation]** Highlights 3 psychological needs not typically considered by other theories - **Affiliation** - Need for friendly interactions and social relationships - **Power** - Need to have control over others - **Achievement** - Strong desire to succeed in attaining goals **[\ ]** **[Arousal/Incentive Approaches]** **Arousal** - People have an optimal level of tension - Things that lure people into action - External stimulus and its rewarding properties - Does not explain the motivation behind all behaviors - Push of internal needs and pull of rewarding stimuli **[Humanistic Approaches]** **Maslow's hierarchy of needs** Need hierarchy -\> self-actualization (full human potential/seldom reached) -\> peak experiences (when self-actualization is achieved) -\> transcendence (search for spiritual meaning beyond self) - Maslow's triangle is Western - Not true for all cultures - Lower levels can be skipped **Self Determination Theory (SDT)** 3 inborn and universal needs - **Autonomy** - To be in control of one's behavior and goals, not controlled by external forces - **Competence** - Able to master the challenging tasks of life and perfect skills - **Relatedness** - Sense of belonging/intimacy/security in relationships Satisfying these 3 will - Foster healthy psychological growth - Increase intrinsic motivation Need for these 3 are of similar importance cross-culturally **Hunger** **Physiological components** - Hormones (insulin/glucagon/leptin) - Homeostatic mechanisms **\ ** **Social and Psychological Components** - Social cues - Classical conditioning - Culture norms - Gender - Attitudes/habits/beliefs **Obesity** When a person is 20% of more over the ideal body weight for their height - Genetic factors - Heredity - Overeating - Perceptions **\ ** - Heart rate - Pupil dilation - Dry mouth - Body heat - Hormonal release - Expressions - Blood pressure - Skin conductance Right hand side of the brain: - Expressions - Negative emotions Left hand side: - Positive emotions Parts of the brain that deal with emotion: - Amygdala - PFC - Thalamus - Insular - ACC - NA - VP - Hippocampus - Septum - ss cortices **Amydala: LeDoux's Low Road and High Road** **Disgust** - linked to specific brain areas: The insula and basal ganglia are key regions involved in processing feelings of disgust. - facial expressions of disgust activates these brain areas. - habituation: The insula can get used to repeated exposure to disgust, meaning it becomes less responsive over time. - if either the insula or basal ganglia is damaged or removed, it significantly affects a person's ability to recognize disgust and feel it themselves. **Fear** - amygdala is a key brain area involved in processing fear. - amygdala responds to fear-inducing stimuli, like loud noises or threatening faces. - can become less responsive to repeated fear-inducing stimuli over time, meaning it gets used to the threat. - If damaged or removed, it greatly impairs a person's ability to recognize fear and feel it. - salience and relevance: The amygdala helps identify what is important or threatening in the environment, allowing for quick emotional responses. **PFC is responsible for emotion regulation**  **\ ** **Theories of Emotion** Darwin argued that expression evolved and is therefore innate Emotions are similar across species and cultures **James-Lange Theory** - proposed that physiological activity **precedes** emotional experience **Cannon-Bard Theory** - stimulus leads to activity in the brain which then arouses the body and interprets the emotion **simultaneously** A diagram of a car\'s reaction Description automatically generated - argued that James-Lange theory was weak because - Body responses aren\'t distinct enough to cause emotions. - Cutting the brain off from the body didn't stop emotions in animals. - Body reactions are too slow to cause quick emotions. - Triggering body reactions with hormones doesn't create emotions on its own.  A diagram of a snake and a person Description automatically generated **Schachter-Singer Two Factor Theory** - similar to James-Lange theory but adds the element of cognitive labelling of the arousal - Physiology and cognitions create emotions - Emotions have two factors - Physical arousal - Cognitive label  A screenshot of a computer Description automatically generated **\ ** **Lazarus & the Cognitive Mediational Theory of Emotion** - cognitive appraisal happens between the stimulus and the emotional response - you assess the situation before feeling physical arousal or emotion  **Summary:** **James-Lange Theory** *Response first, then emotion:* You see a snake, your heart races, and then you realize you're feeling fear because of the physical response. **Cannon-Bard Theory** *Emotion and response happen simultaneously:* You see a snake, and at the same time, you feel fear and your heart races. **Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory** *Response first, then appraisal, then emotion:* You see a snake, your heart races (arousal), you assess the situation, and realize you're scared because it's dangerous. **Lazarus\' Cognitive Mediational Theory** *Appraisal first, then emotion and response:* You see a snake, think it's harmless (appraisal), then feel calm and have no physical reaction. Picture32g  **Facial Feedback Hypothesis** - facial feedback can cause or intensify an emotion A diagram of a process Description automatically generated **Summary:** 3 broad categories of Elements of Emotion - physiological - behavioural - cognitive Theories of emotion try explain how emotions are experienced in the body **\ ** ***[SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY]*** - Focuses on interactions with others - How people affect one another's behaviours/thoughts/feelings - How human behaviour is shaped by social contexts (politics/economy/culture) - How humans interpret social contexts and shape them - Social phenomena (violence/stress/unemployment/poverty/love/peace) - Helps understand how communities function - Evolution of SP from individual to social and then political - Changes across national/contextual boundaries  **Interpersonal Attraction** - The need to experience positive relationships with others as motivation for interpersonal attraction - Factors that explain our attraction towards specific people - Individual-level (our own motivations) - Situation-level (outside of the individual) - Positional-level (focus on one's group position and how it influences decisions) - Ideological-level (focus on how group position influences our ideological beliefs about ideal partner choices) **Internal Determinants of Attraction** - Maslow considers fulfilling the need for belonging and connection as necessary for human functioning - This need is expressed in different ways - Introverted = fewer relationships - extroverted = multiple relationships - unmet needs = poorer human & cognitive functioning/feelings of rejection/social exclusion - some people feel they need these relationships, others avoid them - intensity & direction of our emotions is important **External Determinants of Attraction** - factors outside the individual that determine attraction between people - proximity - similarity - physical attractiveness - reciprocity effect (liking people who like us in return) **Romantic Love** - interpersonal attraction may become romantic love - varying types of romantic love (Sternberg) - intimacy (warmth/closeness) - passion (intense feelings) - commitment (intent to continue the relationship) - these develop into varying types of love - infatuation (complete absorption in another) - liking (intimacy with no passion or commitment) - empty love (only commitment) - romantic love (passion and intimacy but no commitment) - compassionate love (intimacy and commitment) - fatuous love (passion and commitment) - consummate love (strongest form = passion, intimacy and commitment) What You Can Learn from the Triangular Theory of Love **Loneliness** - when the desire for closeness/connection is not fulfilled - can be experienced during various life stages - chronic loneliness can result in impaired physical/mental health, higher stress levels - can increase risk of early death **\ ** - fundamental part of our daily lives - fulfil our need for belonging and love - influence self-esteem and development of self-concept (identity) - important source of social support - collective problem solving through resource pooling **Definition of a Group:** - objective approach - based on perceptions of common characteristics by an outsider (common-identity groups) - subjective approach - when people consider themselves a group (common-bond group) **Characteristics of a Group:** - interdependence amongst group members - interaction between them - mutual influence **Types of Groups:** - **in-group** - the group that people belong to - **out-group** - the group that people don't belong to - **primary groups** - small with intimate and direct interactions (eg. family) - **secondary groups** - limited interactions, weaker emotional connections, and less personal identification (eg. soccer club) - **reference groups** - no formal belonging but identifies with the group (eg. interest group) **Characteristics of a Small Group:** - purpose for existing - group norms - roles - communication - status - cohesiveness **How do Groups Form?** - **Forming or orientation** - Members get to know one another - **Storming or conflict** - Disagreement and tension in the group - **Norming or structure** - Development of norms and agreement - **Performing or development** - Achievement of goals and cooperation - **Adjourning/dissolution** - Tasks completed and roles end, group disintegrates **Group Dynamics:** - **Group polarization** - Individual positions become more extreme after group discussions - **Groupthink** - when a group prioritizes agreement over individual opinions or careful thinking - **social facilitation** - improved individual performance when working with others - **social loafing** - reduced individual performance on the basis of there being others who will do it *groups influence behaviours, ideas and values of individual members* **Social Influence:** *the change in a persons judgement/opinions/attitude because of their exposure to others (peer pressure)* **Types of Social Influence:** - **conformity** - changing behaviour due to real or imagined pressure from others - **minority influence** - smaller groups influencing larger groups - **compliance** - changing behaviour in response to a request (eg. ads/telemarketers) - **obedience** - changing behaviour in response to a command from an authoritative figure **\ ** **Examples of Group Experiments:** **Muzafer Sherif's autokinetic effect (conformity)** participants were asked to estimate the movement of a stationary light in a dark room, and over time, their answers converged to match the group\'s estimates, demonstrating conformity **Solomon Asch (conformity)** participants were asked to match line lengths, and many conformed to the incorrect answers given by a group, even when the correct answer was obvious **Phillip Zimbardo's Stanford prison Experiment (conformity)** college students were assigned roles as guards or prisoners, and they quickly conformed to these roles, leading to abusive behavior and extreme stress **Stanley Milgram (obedience)** participants were instructed to administer electric shocks to a learner for incorrect answers, revealing a high level of obedience to authority even when they believed they were causing harm **Poverty** *a state where an individual lacks material and financial resources to tend to basic needs* **South Africa has high levels of inequality** **Partly due to** - racialisation of apartheid - structural impoverishment - differences in education/healthcare Poverty affects **physical well being** - lack of nutrition and appropriate diet - lack of water and sanitation - increased risk to injuries - higher infant mortality rates and lower life expectancy - also affects social life Poverty affects **psychological well-being** - hopelessness - uncertainty about the future - alienation from mainstream society - cultural imperialism **Poverty and Ethnicity** - socio-economic class continues to be divided across racial and ethnic lines in SA - ethnicity is a form of othering that highlights differences and promotes social inequalities - ethnicity sustains social inequality in conflict - ethnicity is politicized - ethnic identities are given social meaning through ideology - eg. of ideologies include - racism - nationalism - anti-semitism - anti-islamism **Sex/Gender/Sexuality** **Sex** - biological differences **Gender** - characteristics that society assigns to a person **Sexuality** - the way people experience and express their sexual feelings **Sexual Orientation** - how or where people direct their sexual interests **\ ** **Psychological Theories of Sex/Gender** **Biological Accounts** - males and females are intrinsically different - derived from biological differences - belief in inherent natural differences between male and female **Psychoanalytic Theory** - gender identity develops as a result of internal conflict in children - Oedipus/Electra complex - Children experience anxiety because of this complex - When this stage is resolved boys identify with their same sex parent and develop gender identity **Social Learning Theory** - Attitudes and behaviours are learned from one's environment - Individuals acquire masculine/feminine characteristics through role models - Process through which gender appropriate behaviour is learnt = socialisation - Teachers/family/media as sources of information - Gender socialization starts at birth **Cognitive Developmental Approaches** - Children understand the world through categories - They use cognitive processes to acquire gender-related behaviour - Kohlberg's three aspects in the development of gender identity in children - Gender labelling = terms such as boy or girl - Gender knowledge = knowledge about characteristics of males/females - Gender constancy = the ide that gender doesn't change - Children's understanding shifts as they grow - By 6/7 children have acquires gender constancy and imitate the gender they have been assigned **Gender Schema Theory** - Gender Schemata = conceptual frameworks that individuals use to make sense of the world - Gender identity and development arise from the processing of gender schemata - Children develop conceptual schemata of masculinity/femininity that they understand the world through - It is mediated by culture's definition of masculinity/femininity - Linked to gender stereotypes **Social Constructionism** - Gender differences are constructed by society through interactions with others - Constructed within particular social and historical contexts (not fixed) - Society constructs what it means to be a man and behaviours associated with it **Gender in Society -- Inequality** - Continued discrimination against women - Violence against women **Violence** *motivated by hostility and intent to harm and/or deviant* **Types of Violence:** - Domestic violence - Violence for material gain - Sexual violence - State and collective violence - Self-directed violence **Explanations/theories of Violence** **Socio-biological explanations** - Humans have an innate capacity for violence **Social Learning Theory** - Violence is learnt through reinforcement and modelling - Reinforcement = awarding or punishing certain behaviours - Modelling = learning through watching others **Group think** - People act differently in groups than when alone **\ ** **Traumatic Stress and Violence** - Traumatic stress can result after violence on or around an individual - Four categories of symptoms associated with traumatic stress - **Re-experiencing symptoms** - Thoughts/feelings/psychological responses that trigger symptoms - **Avoidance symptoms** - To prevent fear and pain caused by experience of violence they avoid places/people/things associated with that experience - **Arousal symptoms** - Difficulty sleeping/jumpy/quick to anger - **Alterations in cognition and mood** - Dissociative amnesia **Peace Psychology** **Goals** - Preventing and reducing violence - Promotion of peace **Two key concepts** - Peacemaking - Peacebuilding **Peacemaking** - Range of methods directed at reducing the occurrence and intensity of violence - Eg. UN's responses to environments of war - More proactive than peacekeeping - Conflict resolution shapes both the ideas and methods used to make peace - Conflict resolution seeks to minimize the destructive consequences of conflict - Four principles that underlie approaches to conflict resolution - Supported by cooperation not competition - Integrative solutions pursued through mediation and negotiation - Interests of all parties are understood and responded to - Both the conflict resolution process and the outcome is non-violent - These processes often involve a third party/mediator - Reconciliation is central - Reconciliation focuses on rebuilding relationships and includes - Developing a shared vision of an interdependent and fair society - Acknowledging and dealing with the past - Building positive relationships - Significant cultural and attitude change - Substantial social/economic/political change - Implies the expression of painful emotions **Peacebuilding** - Focuses on alleviating structural violence - Focuses on changing cultural discourses that maintain oppression and exploitation - Interventions may include socio-economic/community development/building an effective government - More than conflict resolution but also social justice - Dominant themes - Challenges dominant cultural discourses - Honours multiple voices and co-construction of social change - Adoption of an activist agenda - Sustainable satisfaction of basic human needs