Qualitative Research Fundamentals

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Questions and Answers

What is the primary purpose of conducting qualitative research?

To explore and understand complex human experiences (correct)

To establish firm guidelines for research methodologies

To test a hypothesis using numerical data

To quantify data and perform statistical analysis

Which element is NOT a typical step in designing a qualitative study?

Collect different forms of data

Conduct a hypothesis test (correct)

Ask open ended questions

Identify an issue or problem to study

Which qualitative research method involves studying a group while engaging with them in their natural environment?

Case study

Ethnography (correct)

Phenomenology

Narrative study

What is an important consideration when conducting qualitative research?

Maintaining reflexivity and ethical considerations Signup and view all the answers

In which scenario is qualitative research particularly applicable?

When a problem requires in-depth exploration Signup and view all the answers

What unethical action was taken against the men in the study of untreated syphilis?

They were denied effective treatment even when it became available. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT one of the fundamental principles of ethics in research?

Integrity Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of qualitative research?

Researcher as the key instrument Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following elements is essential in a consent form?

Signature Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant outcome of the ethical criticisms surrounding the syphilis study?

Creation of the Belmont Report Signup and view all the answers

In qualitative research, what approach seeks to develop new theories based on collected data?

Grounded theory Signup and view all the answers

What factor is NOT considered a form of ethical issue in research?

Participant's occupation Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of qualitative research indicates that the research design can change over time?

Emergent design Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following traits is NOT one of the five personality traits identified by Gosling?

Conscientiousness Signup and view all the answers

In general, which gender tends to exhibit higher levels of empathy and social connectedness?

Women Signup and view all the answers

Which personality assessment approach focuses primarily on the individual characteristics through interviews?

Idiographic approaches Signup and view all the answers

Which personality traits tend to be higher in collectivist cultures compared to individualistic cultures?

Agreeableness and Internal locus of control Signup and view all the answers

Which type of conflict involves choosing between two equally appealing options?

Approach-approach conflict Signup and view all the answers

What does the Behavioral Activation System (BAS) primarily respond to?

Signals of potential reward Signup and view all the answers

Which approach suggests that unconscious motives significantly influence behavior?

Psychodynamic approach Signup and view all the answers

Which music genre is typically associated with traits of being inventive and tolerant?

Classical Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential drawback of projective measures in personality assessments?

Questionable reliability and validity Signup and view all the answers

Which type of motivation occurs when an individual performs an action for external rewards?

Extrinsic motivation Signup and view all the answers

What does displacement refer to in psychodynamic theory?

Redirecting emotions to a safer target Signup and view all the answers

Karen Horney's theory suggested that men feel which of the following in opposition to Freud's penis envy?

Womb envy Signup and view all the answers

According to humanistic theory, what aspect of personality development is most crucial?

Self-concept Signup and view all the answers

How do children raised with unconditional positive regard typically develop?

Fully functioning and open to experience Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of someone who is fully functioning according to Rogers?

Desire for control Signup and view all the answers

What is a main criticism of humanistic theories of personality?

They lack comprehensive coverage of personality. Signup and view all the answers

In the social cognitive perspective, individual differences in personality are explained by what factors?

Learned beliefs and social interpretations Signup and view all the answers

What are the three strategies that people develop to cope with basic anxiety according to Horney?

Moving toward, moving against, and moving away Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of a narrative study?

Analyzing people's stories to understand their experiences Signup and view all the answers

Which qualitative method involves a researcher interacting with a group in their natural setting?

Ethnography Signup and view all the answers

What is a common disadvantage of using focus groups in qualitative research?

Large amount of data generated Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary advantage of diary studies?

Insight into events as they occur Signup and view all the answers

What is a disadvantage associated with web-based data collection?

Potential for inaccurate accounts due to anonymity Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes a significant focus of Sir Francis Galton's research?

Measurement of physical traits and sensory acuity Signup and view all the answers

What concept did Alfred Binet propose regarding child intelligence?

Children have a 'mental age' that can be measured against averages Signup and view all the answers

The Stanford-Binet test, revised by Lewis Terman, primarily emphasizes which aspect of intelligence?

Single IQ score Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect did David Wechsler criticize in the Stanford-Binet test?

Too much emphasis on verbal skills Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a measure of intelligence according to Wechsler's tests?

Social Intelligence IQ Signup and view all the answers

In the WISC-IV, how many specific cognitive domains contribute to the Full Scale IQ?

4 Signup and view all the answers

What statistical concept is associated with psychometrics?

Measuring the reliability of psychological tests Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following intelligence tests is designed for individuals aged 16-69 years in South Africa?

The South African Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale Signup and view all the answers

What flaw is associated with the early methods of intelligence testing like those proposed by Sir Francis Galton?

Inaccuracy in results Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

The Tuskegee Syphilis Study

A study that observed the natural progression of untreated syphilis in African American men in Alabama
Started in 1932 and continued until 1972
The men were denied treatment, even after penicillin became widely available in 1947
The men were told they were being treated
The study ended after a journalist exposed the unethical practices.
The study and other human rights violations committed during WWII led to the creation of the Belmont Report

Ethical Considerations in Research

Beneficence: Research should benefit participants and society
Autonomy: Participants must give informed consent to participate
Justice: Participants should not be discriminated against based on gender, race, ethnicity, or other factors
Informed consent must include:
- A brief overview of the study
- Description of procedures
- Potential risks and inconveniences
- Benefits to the participant and society
- Costs and compensation
- Confidentiality of data
- Alternative treatments
- Confirmation of voluntary participation
- Instructions for asking questions and getting further information
- A space for participant signature
Other ethical considerations:
- Fraud: Misrepresenting data or findings
- Allocation of credit: Properly attributing contributions
- Sharing of personal data: Protecting participants privacy

### Qualitative Research

An umbrella term for methods used to study social phenomena
Begins with assumptions, worldview, theoretical lens, and a research problem
Characteristics:
- Takes place in natural settings
- Researcher is the key instrument in gathering data
- Multiple sources of data (interviews, observations, documents, etc.)
- Inductive data analysis (theories emerge from the data)
- Focuses on participants' meaning of the issue researched
- Flexible, emergent research design
- Employ a theoretical lens
- Interpretive inquiry (researchers interpret what they experience)
- Provides a holistic account
Five approaches:
- Grounded theory: Deriving a new theory from data
- Narrative study: Analyzing people's life stories
- Case study: In-depth examination of one or a few cases
- Ethnography: Observe, interact with, and study a group in their natural setting
- Phenomenology: Explore how people experience their lives
Use cases:
- Explore new areas of study
- Understand complex issues in detail
- Share stories and perspectives
- Write in an engaging literary style
- Understand the context of participants' lives
- Follow up on quantitative research
- Develop theories for a particular phenomenon
- Use when quantitative research is not suitable
Considerations and challenges:
- Requires a strong commitment to research
- Extensive field time for collecting data
- Time-consuming process of data analysis
- Writing long passages and interpretations
- Ensuring human research is ethical, following rigorous guidelines

### Designing a Qualitative Study:

Identify a research problem
Read existing research on the topic
Develop open-ended research questions
Collect diverse forms of data
Organize and analyze the data
Present participants' views accurately
Practice reflexivity, reflecting on researcher bias and influences
Be mindful of ethical considerations
Utilize peer review for quality assurance

A good Qualitative Study:

Utilizes rigorous data collection methods
Employs a recognized research approach
Has a clearly defined research focus
Presents writing that is persuasive and clear
Adheres to ethical guidelines

### Data Collection Methods

Interviews:
- Structured: Follows a set of questions
- Unstructured: Allows for open-ended discussion with few questions
- Semi-structured: A combination of structured and unstructured.
Focus groups:
- Group interviews
- Guided by a moderator
- Naturalistic, allowing for conversation
- Flexible, allowing for dynamic discussion
Disadvantages of Focus Groups:
- Large amount of data
- Time-consuming transcription
- Scheduling challenges
- Requires a skilled moderator to guide without dominating
Diary Studies:
- Clear aims are established
- Written in intervals, when signaled, or during specific events
- Offers insights into events as they happen
- Provides insights into how events progress
- Reduces memory bias
Disadvantages of Diary Studies:
- Diary keeping may alter routines and experiences
- No guarantee that instructions are followed
- Inconsistency in diary data may occur
- High drop-out rates
Web-based data:
- Collects first-person accounts from individuals
- Accounts are already posted, making it easily accessible
- Often focused and rich in detail
- Provides anonymity to participants
Disadvantages of Web-based Data:
- Potential for deception and unreliable accounts
- Overabundance of data
- Only reflects the views of internet users

Media and Text Sources:

Reduces need to collect new primary data
Prevents researcher influence
Avoids participant recruitment
Offers a wide range of media
Disadvantages
- May include irrelevant or inappropriate sources
- Only very specific research questions can be addressed

### Intelligence

Different cultures have varying views on intelligence
IQ tests and the concept of intelligence have been misused for political agendas
A broad definition of intelligence:
- Problem-solving
- Understanding and learning complex information
- Adapting to the environment
- Mental quickness
Therefore, intelligence encompasses acquiring knowledge, reasoning effectively, and adapting to the environment

Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911)

Focused on genetics and eugenics
Believed genius was hereditary
Measured physical and sensory abilities of individuals from eminent families (reaction speed, hand strength, sensory acuity, skull size)
Results had limited predictive power but sparked controversy
Galton's work influenced the development of eugenics and racial categorization, particularly in South Africa

### Alfred Binet (1857-1911):

Tasked with developing an objective intelligence test for school children
Created the first workable intelligence test in 1905
His approach:
- Tested large numbers of children across various age groups
- Established average scores for each age group
- Compared individual child's performance to the average
Introduced the concept of mental age

Stanford-Binet Test

Revised by Lewis Terman for use in the USA
Primarily verbal items, generating a single IQ score
Became a standard measure in: clinical psychology, psychiatry, and educational counseling
Assumed intelligence was predominantly hereditary and stable

### David Wechsler (1896-1981)

Believed the Stanford-Binet Test relied excessively on verbal skills, yielded only one score, and was not suitable for adults
Developed tests with items and timing that were more appropriate for children and adults
WISC-IV, WAIS-R, WPPSI-R
Measured both verbal and nonverbal abilities:
- Verbal Scale IQ
- Performance Scale IQ ( less affected by language and culture)
- Full Scale IQ (overall intelligence measurement)
He believed in a single intelligence factor, but comprised of specific interrelated elements

### The WISC-IV:

Measures four specific cognitive domains (indexes)
Indexes contribute to the overall Full Scale IQ
Four cognitive domains:
- Verbal Comprehension: Similarities, Vocabulary, Comprehension
- Perceptual Reasoning:
  - Matrix Reasoning
  - Picture Concepts
- Working Memory: Digit Span
- Processing Speed:
  - Coding

### The WAIS-R, WISC-IV, WPPSI-R:

These tests are used to assess cognitive abilities in different age groups.
SA versions:
- The Junior South African Individual Scale (JSAIS-R): 3-7 years
- The Senior South African Individual Scale (SSAIS-R): 7-16 years
- The South African Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (SAWAIS): 16-69 years

### Psychometrics:

The statistical study of psychological tests.
Addresses questions such as: How many mental abilities underlie performance?

Defense Mechanisms:

Unconscious psychological strategies that protect the ego from anxiety and threats.
Repression: Blocking out threatening thoughts, memories or feelings from conscious awareness.
Regression: Returning to an earlier, less mature stage of development
Rationalization: Justifying one's behavior with logical reasons without acknowledging the true motives.
Denial: Refusing to acknowledge reality, especially when it is painful or threatening.- Projection: Attributing one's own unacceptable thoughts, feelings, or motives to others.
Displacement: Redirecting emotions from the original source to a safer target.
Sublimation: Transforming negative impulses into positive or socially acceptable behaviors.

Psychodynamic Theories After Freud (Neo-Freudian Approach)

Less emphasis on the drives of sex and aggression; more focus on social interaction
Less emphasis on the unconscious and more on the Ego
Karen Horney:
- Challenged Freud's notion of "penis envy" in women, suggesting "womb envy" in men.
- Focused on social interactions as the source of adult personality
Horney believed people develop three coping strategies for anxieties:
- Move toward (affiliation, connection)
- Move against (assertion, dominance)
- Move away (withdrawal, detachment)
Children in toxic environments develop one of these styles:
- Compliant
- Aggressive
- Detached
Neo-Freudian theories focus on the role of social relationships in shaping personality.

### Humanistic Theories:

Carl Rogers:
- Self-concept: Central to personality development, the congruence between real self and ideal self is vital
- Unconditional positive regard: Acceptance and love without conditions; crucial for children to achieve full functioning
- Fully functioning: Openness to experience, existential living, organismic trusting, experiential freedom, creativity
Humanistic theories highlight the strive for meaning in life.

### Criticisms of Humanistic Theories

They don't offer a comprehensive theory of personality.
Difficult to test scientifically.
Lack of empirical research support.
Seen as too idealistic.

### Social Cognitive Perspective:

Explains personality differences in terms of learned beliefs, interpretations of social situations, and self-efficacy.
Can predict behavior like shyness
Amygdala arousal is associated with shyness
Personality is a product of nature and nurture.

### Animal Personality:

Evidence of five personality traits in animals:
- Extraversion
- Neuroticism
- Agreeableness
- Openness to experience
- Conscientiousness (only chimps showed this trait)
Studying animals reveals insights into the genetics and biology of personality.

### Gender and Personality

Biologically and socioculturally influenced: - Women have higher levels of social connectedness, empathy, nurturing, and neuroticism.
- Men have higher levels of anger, aggression, individuality, and autonomy.
Most personality theories are Eurocentric.

Cultural Influences on Personality:

Collectivist cultures: Higher agreeableness and external locus of control
Individualistic cultures: Higher extraversion, openness to experience, and internal locus of control

### Career/Personality Tests & Criticisms:

Holland's Theory: Eurocentric, assumes equal opportunities and freely available work.

Personality Assessment

Idiographic approaches: Person-centered approaches (clinical interviews)
Nomothetic approaches: Characteristic-centered approaches (questionnaires)
Projective measures: Testing unconscious processes, questionable reliability and validity (inkblot tests, TAT)
Objective measures: Structured and standardized assessments; easy to administer, allow for comparisons (16 PF, MMPI-2, NEO-PI-R/NEO-PI-3, SAPI)
Criticisms of personality assessments:
- Responses can be biased.
- Tests can be biased.
- There's no objective standard.
- Dehumanising.

Music and Personality

Reflective and Complex (classical, blues, jazz, folk):
- Inventive
- Imaginative
- Intelligent
- Tolerant
- Politically Liberal
- High Openness
Intense and Rebellious (rock, alt, metal):
- Intelligent
- Curious
- Physically active
- Risk-takers
- High Openness
Upbeat and Conventional (country, pop, religious, soundtracks):
- Cheerful
- Socially outgoing
- Reliable
- Helpful
- High Extraversion
- High Agreeableness
- High Conscientiousness
- Low Openness
Energetic and Rhythmic (rap, hip-hop, funk, soul, EDM):
- Energetic
- Talkative
Physically attractive
Forgiving - Politically Liberal - High Extraversion - High Agreeableness
Accurate in most traits except for conscientiousness.

Motivation & Emotion:

Motivation: Process that influences the direction and persistence of goal-directed behavior. It's the process by which activities are started, directed, or continued to meet physical or psychological needs and wants.
Components of Motivation:
- Biological: Homeostasis, drives
- Psychological: Cognition, personality
- Environmental: Instinct, behaviorism, cognitive revolution, affective neuroscience
Motivated action:
- Towards: Behavioral activation system (BAS), responding to potential rewards.
- Away: Behavioral inhibition system (BIS), responding to fear or anticipation of pain.
Types of conflict:
- Avoidance-approach conflict: One option is appealing, the other is not.
- Approach-approach conflict: Both options are equally appealing.
- Avoidance-avoidance conflict: Both options are undesirable.

Approaches to Understanding Motivation:

Psychodynamic:
- Unconscious motives affect behavior.
- Freud's emphasis on sexual and aggressive motives.
- Modern theorists focus on motives like self-esteem and social belonging.
- People are not always aware of what motivates them.

Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation:

Extrinsic: Perform an action for external reward (e.g., money, grades).
Intrinsic: Perform an action for internal satisfaction or enjoyment (e.g., pleasure, interest, challenge).

### Basic Emotions: (Seeks to understand the nature, causes, and consequences of emotions)

Happiness (Joy): Contentment, positive feelings.
Sadness: Emotional distress, feelings of loss or disappointment.
Anger: Hostile feelings caused by provocation or injustice.
Fear: An unpleasant emotion caused by a danger or threat.
Disgust: A strong aversion to something offensive or repulsive
Surprise: A response to an unexpected or startling event.
Contempt: A feeling of superiority and disgust.
Shame: A painful emotion caused by the awareness of a mistake or wrongdoing.
Guilt: A feeling of remorse or responsibility for an action or thought.
Love: Strong affection and care for another person or entity

### Theories of Emotion

James-Lange Theory: Physiological arousal precedes the emotion.
Cannon-Bard Theory: Physiological arousal and emotion occur simultaneously.
Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory: Physiological arousal is interpreted based on the situation, leading to an emotion.

### Cognitive Appraisal Theory:

Focuses on the role of thoughts and interpretations in shaping emotions.
Appraisal: Evaluation of an event and its significance.

### Emotional Intelligence (EQ): (The ability to understand, manage, and utilize emotions)

Self-awareness: Understanding your own emotions.
Self-regulation: Controlling and managing your own emotions.
Motivation: Staying focused and driven.
Empathy: Understanding and recognizing the emotions of others.
Social skills: Managing relationships effectively.

Types of Emotion Regulation:

Behavioral: Taking action to change the situation.
Cognitive: Changing how you think about the situation.
Physiological: Changing your physical state.
Psychological
Social

Culture: Shape emotional expression and understanding.
Gender: Can influence expected emotions and behaviors.
Social Norms: Guide emotional expression.
Social Support: Improves emotional well-being.

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This quiz assesses your understanding of the core principles and ethical considerations in qualitative research. Answer questions about research methods, ethical practices, and key characteristics unique to this approach. Perfect for students and professionals looking to enhance their knowledge of qualitative studies.