Psychology 203 Exam 1 PDF

# Psychology 203 ## Exam-1 ### Intro to Methods 1. **Research methods for psychology**: * **Psychology** * **Empiricism**: (Knowledge derived from sense-experience) * **Psychology**: the scientific study of mind and behavior. * **Psychology is empirical**: verifiable, based...

# Psychology 203 ## Exam-1 ### Intro to Methods 1. **Research methods for psychology**: * **Psychology** * **Empiricism**: (Knowledge derived from sense-experience) * **Psychology**: the scientific study of mind and behavior. * **Psychology is empirical**: verifiable, based on observations, experience, and the scientific method, rather than simply theory or pure logic. The goal is to make the study of psychological phenomenon as objective and reproducible as possible. 2. **The Theory-Data Cycle**: Theory, Hypothesis, Data, steps of cycle * **Theory**: general principles about how variables relate to one another. * **Hypothesis**: expected outcomes if the theory is accurate * **Data**: set of observations **Theory-Data Cycle** <div align="center"> ```mermaid graph LR A[Theory] --> B{Research questions, research design} B --> C[Hypotheses] C --> D[Data] D --> A D --> B B --> E[Support] E --> A D --> F[Nonsupporting data] F --> A F --> B ``` </div> <div align="center"> **Revision** </div> 3. **Qualities of good scientific theories**: * **Data driven**, **falsifiable**, **parsimonious** * **Don't prove anything** - able to be proved to be false * **Falsifiable** * **Parsimonious**: unwilling to spend money or resources * **Don’t prove anything** 4. **Publication & Presentation** - Add formal publication and presentation to the end of the theory data cycle. - Conference presentation - Peer-reviewed journals - Findings picked up by journalists, for a general audience. 5. **Types of Research Questions**: Basic, Applied, Translational * **Basic**: Enhance general knowledge * **Translational**: Use lessons from basic research to develop real-world applications * **Applied**: Solve practical problems ## Research Inspiration - **Comparison groups**: Conditions both with and without the aspect of interest. - **Addressing alternative explanations**: Something that varies with the condition of interest instead may explain an existing effect. - **Research is Probabilistic**: Because we have comparison groups, and therefore multiple participants, research findings are **probabilistic**: they represent what happens on average, not every time. - **Common Sense**: - We tend to accept conclusions that make sense. - It turns out, some things that seem to make sense, haven’t been empirically supported. - Common sense can even support two conflicting views: - Example: “Birds of a feather flock together” vs “Opposites attract” - Example: “Two heads are better than one” vs “Too many cooks in the kitchen”. - **Availability Heuristic**: When things come to mind more easily, we think they are more likely to be true. - **Present/Present Bias**: Tendency to rely on evidence where a key condition is present, and ignore evidence where the element is absent when evaluating a claim. - **Confirmation Bias**: The tendency to seek out information that is consistent with our beliefs. - **Bias blind spot**: People believe they are less likely to engage in biased reasoning than others. - **Journal article vs. other sources** - Peer review, quantitative journals ## Parts of an Empirical Article 1. **Abstract**: Summary 2. **Intro** 3. **Method** 4. **Results** 5. **Discussion** ## Variables & Validity - **Variable**: Something that takes on different values in a study. - **Constant**: Something that doesn’t take on different values in a study. - **Measured Variable**: A variable whose values are observed and recorded vs. **Manipulated Variable**: A variable whose values are assigned by the experimenter through random assignment, chance procedures implemented by the experimenter - **Predictor Variable** vs. **Independent Variable**: A manipulated variable that is hypothesized to affect an outcome vs. **Dependent Variable**: A measured outcome variable that is hypothesized to be predicted by another variable. <div align="center"> ```mermaid graph LR A[Predictor Variable] --> B[Dependent Variable] A --> C[Independent Variable] ``` </div> - **Conceptual definition**: Provides meaning to the variable in abstract or theoretical terms. - **Operational definition**: Provides meaning to the variable by specifying the exact procedures used to measure/manipulate it in given study. ## Claims - **Frequency claims**: Assertions about how common something is. - **Association claims**: Assertions about the relationship (correlation, covariation) between two variables. - **Positive association**: Both variables go together, no matter if both go up or down. - **Negative association**: One variable ↑, the other ↓, and vice versa. - **No association**. - **Causal claims**: Assertions that one variable is responsible for changing another. ## Validity - **Validity**: The appropriateness of a claim or procedure. - **Construct validity**: How well a conceptual variable is operationalized. - **External validity**: How well the results generalize to other samples/contexts. - **Statistical validity**: The strength of the results and how the results are analyzed and interpreted. - **Internal validity**: The strength of the claim that the predictor variable (vs. something else) is causing a change in the dependent variable. ## Three Requirements for Causation 1. **Covariation**: The two variables must be related. 2. **Temporal precedence**: The predictor variable must come before the dependent variable. 3. **Third variable criterion**: The ability to eliminate other possible, alternative explanations for the results ## Measurement & Surveys **Common types of psychological measurement** - **Self-report**: Asking people to respond to questions. - **Observational**: Recording observable behaviors - **Physiological**: Recording biological data ## Scales of Measurement - **Nominal**: Classifies individuals into categories that have different names, but are not orderable - **Ordinal**: Categories are in a fixed order in terms of size or magnitude. - **Interval**: Has elements of ordinal measurements, plus the categories form a series of equal intervals. The zero point is arbitrary. - **Ratio**: Has elements of interval measures plus a meaningful zero point ## Types of Self-Report 1. **Open ended**: Allows participants to answer any way they like. 2. **Forced choice**: Participants must choose between different categorical answers. 3. **Likert-like scale**: Strongly agree/disagree scales. 4. **Semantic differential**: Respond on a sale anchored with contrasting adjectives. ## Question wording issues 1. **Leading questions**: The wording encourages a particular response. 2. **Double-barreled questions**: A single item asks more than one question. 3. **Negatively worded questions**: Negatively phrased items can be confusing. 4. **Question order**: Questions that come first can influence the following questions. # Encouraging Accurate Measures - **Acquiescence Bias**: The general tendency to agree across items. - **Fence sitting**: The general tendency to play it safe and select the midpoint. - **Social desirability**: Answer in ways that make one look positive. - **Lack of insight**: The inability to access the required information. - **Faulty memory**: The inability to correctly remember the required information. - **Observer bias**: When observer’s expectations influence their interpretations of participant behavior. - **Demand effects**: Observer expectation change participant behavior. - **Reactivity**: Observer’s mere presence can change participant’s behavior. ## Research Ethics - **The Belmont Report** 1. **Respect for persons**: Research participants should be treated as autonomous agents, and certain groups deserve special protections. 2. **Principle of Beneficence**: Protects participants from harm and promote well-being. 3. **Principle of Justice**: Fair balance between kinds of people who participate and people who benefit from it. ## APA’s Ethical Standards 1. **IRBs** 2. **Informed consent** 3. **Debriefing** 4. **Deception** 5. **Taking research misconduct seriously** 6. **Animal research ethics** ## Sampling - **Population**: The entire set you’re interested in. - **Census**: Entire population. - **Sample**: Subset of your population that is in your study. - **Sampling**: Process of selecting a sample. - **Unbiased/Representative Sample**: All members of a population have equal likelihood of being included. - **Biased/Unrepresentative**: Do not have equal likelihood. **Random Sampling**: Every member = equal chance - **Simple Random**: Completely chosen at random, from the entire population of interest. - **Cluster Sampling**. Subgroups selected at random, then every person of the subgroup is assessed. - **Multistage Sampling**: Subgroups are selected at random, then a simple random is taken from each subgroup. - **Convenience Sampling**: Chosen based on who is relatively easy to access. - **Self-selection**: Based on who volunteers to participate. ## Reliability - **Test-retest reliability**: Consistency across multiple measurement times. - **Interrater reliability**: Consistency across multiple observers. - **Internal reliability**: Consistency across multiple different items in a single scale. - Pearson’s r: A measure of correlation. Range from -1 to +1. Sign indicates direction. Absolute value indicates magnitude. ## Validity concerns within construct validity 1. **Face validity**: Felt by the extent to which it looks subjectively plausible. 2. **Content validity**: Extent to which it includes all elements it theoretically should. 3. **Criterion validity**: Extent to which a measure is associated with a relevant behavioral outcome. 4. **Convergent validity**: Correlates with other measures of theoretically similar constructs. 5. **Divergent validity**: Does not correlate with measures of theoretically similar constructs. **NOTE**: - If there is reliability, that doesn't necessarily mean there is validity. - If there is validity, then there are chances there is reliability.