Introduction to Psychology Methods

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Questions and Answers

What is the main goal of the scientific study of psychology?

To make psychological phenomena as subjective as possible

To rely solely on sense-experience without verification

To create theories based on pure logic

To make the study of psychological phenomena as objective and reproducible as possible (correct)

Which characteristic of a good scientific theory indicates that it can be proven wrong?

Data-driven

Proven

Falsifiable (correct)

Parsimonious

What is the focus of translational research?

To solve theoretical problems in psychology

To develop practical solutions using insights from basic research (correct)

To enhance general knowledge about psychological phenomena

To conduct experiments without real-world applications

What is a critical aspect of research findings being probabilistic?

They represent average outcomes rather than certainties Signup and view all the answers

Which step comes immediately after forming a hypothesis in the theory-data cycle?

Data Signup and view all the answers

In the context of scientific theories, what does 'parsimonious' mean?

Unwilling to spend money or resources Signup and view all the answers

What role do comparison groups play in research?

They help in understanding probability and alternative explanations Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a type of research question in psychology?

Theoretical Signup and view all the answers

What does construct validity primarily assess?

The appropriateness of a conceptual variable's operationalization Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a requirement for establishing causation?

Covariation between two variables Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the ratio scale of measurement?

Equal intervals with a meaningful zero point Signup and view all the answers

Which type of self-report involves participants choosing between specific answers?

Forced choice Signup and view all the answers

What type of question is characterized by its wording encouraging a specific response?

Leading questions Signup and view all the answers

Which bias involves the tendency to agree with statements regardless of content?

Acquiescence bias Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of the principle of beneficence in research ethics?

To protect participants from harm and promote their well-being. Signup and view all the answers

In which type of question are participants asked to rate on a scale anchored with opposing adjectives?

Semantic differential Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the concept of observer bias?

When expectations of the observer change their interpretations of behavior. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following can negatively impact the accuracy of self-reports?

Acquiescence bias Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following sampling methods ensures that every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected?

Simple Random Sampling Signup and view all the answers

What type of reliability is assessed by determining the consistency of a measure across multiple observers?

Interrater reliability Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes criterion validity?

The measure's association with a relevant behavioral outcome. Signup and view all the answers

Which cognitive bias involves relying on evidence that confirms pre-existing beliefs?

Confirmation bias Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the Belmont Report in research ethics?

It establishes ethical principles for conducting research with human participants. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary distinction between a measured variable and a manipulated variable?

Manipulated variables are assigned by the experimenter, whereas measured variables are recorded. Signup and view all the answers

Which term refers to a situation where participants change their behavior due to the observer's mere presence?

Reactivity Signup and view all the answers

Which option correctly describes a predictor variable in a study?

It is hypothesized to affect an outcome variable. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is true regarding frequency claims?

They indicate how common or prevalent a phenomenon is. Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of convenience sampling?

Surveying individuals attending a public event. Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of an abstract in an empirical article?

To summarize the key findings and purpose of the study. Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'availability heuristic' refer to in decision making?

Overvaluing information that is readily available due to recent exposure. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes a negative association between two variables?

One variable increases while the other decreases. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately reflects a characteristic of the bias blind spot?

There is a perception that others are more susceptible to biases. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Introduction to Methods

Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior.
Empiricism is the idea that knowledge is derived from sense-experience.
Psychology is empirical, meaning it is verifiable, based on observations, experience, and the scientific method.
The Theory-Data Cycle is a process that starts with a theory, generates research questions and a research design, forms a hypothesis, collects data, and then revises the theory based on the data.
Good scientific theories are data-driven, falsifiable, and parsimonious.
Falsifiable theories can be proved false.
Parsimonious theories are simple and concise.
Scientific theories don’t prove anything, they are supported or not supported by evidence.
Research questions can be basic, applied, or translational.
Basic research aims to enhance general knowledge.
Applied research focuses on solving practical problems.
Translational research uses basic research findings to develop real-world applications.

Research Inspiration

Comparison groups are used to compare conditions with and without the aspect of interest.
Alternative explanations are addressed by identifying other factors that may vary with the condition of interest.
Research is probabilistic, based on what happens on average, not every time.
Common sense can be misleading, as some things that seem to make sense may not be empirically supported.
The Availability Heuristic leads us to think things are more likely to be true if they come to mind easily.
Present/Present Bias is the tendency to rely on evidence where a key condition is present and ignore evidence where it is absent.
Confirmation Bias is the tendency to seek out information consistent with our beliefs.
Bias Blind Spot is the belief that we are less likely to engage in biased reasoning than others.
Journal articles are considered more reliable sources than other sources due to peer review and quantitative methods.

Parts of an Empirical Article

Abstract: Summary of the article.
Introduction: Background information and the research question.
Method: Detailed description of the study's procedures.
Results: Presentation of the findings.
Discussion: Interpretation of the results and their implications.

Variables & Validity

Variable: Something that takes on different values in a study.
Constant: Something that does not take on different values in a study.
Measured variable: A variable whose values are observed and recorded.
Manipulated variable: A variable whose values are assigned by the experimenter through random assignment.
Predictor variable: A manipulated variable that is hypothesized to affect an outcome.
Independent variable: A variable that is manipulated by the researcher.
Dependent variable: A measured outcome variable that is hypothesized to be predicted by another variable.
Conceptual definition: Abstract meaning of a variable.
Operational definition: Specific procedures used to measure or manipulate a variable.

Claims

Frequency claim: Assertions about how common something is.
Association claim: Assertions about the relationship between two variables (correlation).
Positive association: Both variables increase or decrease together.
Negative association: One variable increases as the other decreases.
No association: No relationship between variables.
Causal claim: Assertions that one variable is responsible for changing another.

Validity

Validity: The appropriateness of a claim or procedure.
Construct validity: How well a conceptual variable is operationalized.
External validity: How well the results generalize to other samples or contexts.
Statistical validity: The strength of the results and how they are analyzed and interpreted.
Internal validity: The strength of the claim that the predictor variable causes a change in the dependent variable.

Three Requirements for Causation

Covariation: The two variables must be related.
Temporal precedence: The predictor variable must come before the dependent variable.
Third variable criterion: The ability to eliminate other possible explanations for the results.

Measurement & Surveys

Common types of psychological measurement:
- Self-reports
- Observational measures
- Physiological measures
Scales of measurement:
- Nominal: Categories with different names, but not orderable.
- Ordinal: Categories in a fixed order, but intervals are not equal.
- Interval: Categories with equal intervals, but no meaningful zero point.
- Ratio: Categories with equal intervals and a meaningful zero point.

Types of Self-Report

Open-ended: Allows participants to answer freely.
Forced-choice: Participants must choose from a limited set of options.
Likert-like scales: Strongly agree/disagree scales.
Semantic differential: Respond on a scale anchored with contrasting adjectives.

Question Wording Issues

Leading questions: The wording encourages a particular response.
Double-barreled questions: One item asks multiple questions.
Negatively worded questions: Negatively phrased items can be confusing.
Question order: Earlier questions can influence later responses.

Encouraging Accurate Measures

Acquiescence bias: Tendency to agree with items.
Fence sitting: Tendency to choose the middle option.
Social desirability: Answering to appear positive.
Lack of insight: Inability to access the necessary information.
Faulty memory: Inability to remember information correctly.
Observer bias: Observer's expectations influence their interpretations.
Demand effects: Observer's expectations change participant behavior.
Reactivity: Observer's presence changes participant behavior.

Research Ethics

The Belmont Report outlines three ethical principles:
- Respect for persons: Treat participants as autonomous agents and provide special protection for vulnerable groups.
- Beneficence: Protect participants from harm and promote well-being.
- Justice: Ensure that participants are fairly selected and that benefits are distributed fairly.

APA's Ethical Standards for Research

Ethical guidelines:
- IRBs (Institutional Review Boards): Review research proposals for ethical considerations.
- Informed consent: Participants must provide informed consent before participating.
- Debriefing: Participants are informed of the true purpose of the study after participation.
- Deception: Deception is only permissible if justified and harmless.
- Research misconduct: Plagiarism, fabrication, and falsification are unethical.
- Animal research ethics: Strict guidelines for animal research to ensure humane treatment.

Sampling

Population: The entire set of individuals you are interested in.
Census: Data collected from the entire population.
Sample: A subset of the population that is studied.
Sampling: The process of selecting a sample.
Unbiased/Representative Sample: All members of the population have an equal chance of being included.
Biased/Unrepresentative Sample: Members of the population do not have an equal chance of being included.

Types of Random Sampling

Simple Random Sampling: Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.
Cluster Sampling: Subgroups are randomly selected, and all individuals within those subgroups are included.
Multistage Sampling: Subgroups are randomly selected, and then a simple random sample is taken from each subgroup.

Types of Non-Random Sampling

Convenience Sampling: Participants are selected based on ease of access.
Self-selection: Participants volunteer to participate.

Reliability

Test-retest reliability: Consistency of scores across multiple measurements.
Inter-rater reliability: Consistency of scores across multiple observers.
Internal reliability: Consistency of scores across multiple items within a scale.
Pearson's r: A measure of correlation, ranging from -1 to +1. Sign indicates direction; absolute value indicates magnitude.

Validity concerns within construct validity

Face validity: Subjectively plausible, looks like it measures what it claims.
Content validity: Includes all elements it theoretically should.
Criterion validity: Associated with a relevant behavioral outcome.
Convergent validity: Correlates with other measures of theoretically similar constructs.

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Description

This quiz covers essential concepts in psychology methods, including the nature of empirical research, the Theory-Data Cycle, and the characteristics of good scientific theories. Explore the distinctions between basic, applied, and translational research while understanding how theories in psychology are developed and tested.