2.-Theory-and-Research-DISCUSSION.pdf

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Chapter 2: Theory and Research Prepared by: Camille Faye Elcano-de la Paz, RPm TOPICS Chapter 2: Theory and Research Basic Theoretical Issues Theoretical Perspectives...

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Chapter 2: Theory and Research Prepared by: Camille Faye Elcano-de la Paz, RPm TOPICS Chapter 2: Theory and Research Basic Theoretical Issues Theoretical Perspectives Research Methods Quiz 2 : 15 items TOPICS Chapter 2: Theory and Research Basic Theoretical Issues Theoretical Perspectives Research Methods Quiz 2 : 15 items BASIC THEORETICAL Set of logically related concepts or ISSUES statements that seek to describe and explain development and to predict the kind of behavior that might occur under certain conditions. Organize and explain data and generates hypothesis  ISSUE 1: IS DEVELOPMENT ACTIVE OR REACTIVE? Reactive Development Active Development Conceptualize the Argue that people create developing child as a hungry experiences for themselves sponge that soaks up and are motivated to elarn experiences and is shaped about the world around them by this input over time.  Mechanistic Model Organismic Model People are like machines that Views human development as react to environmental input internally initiated by an active Views human development as organism and as occuring in a a series of predictable sequence of qualitatively responses to stimuli different stages Human behavior results from They initiate events, they do not the operation of biological just react. parts in response to external Environment does not cause and internal stimuli. development, though they can speed or slow it  ISSUE 1: IS DEVELOPMENT CONTINUOUS OR DISCONTINUOUS? Continuous Discontinuous Gradual and incremental Abrupt or uneven (quantitative) (qualitative) Mechanistic theorists see Marked by the development as emergence of new continuous - occuring in phenomena that could small incremental stages not be easily predicted on the basis of past functioning  Psychoanalytic Perspective Learning Perspective THEORETICAL Cognitive Perspective PERSPECTIVES Contextual Perspective Evolutionary / Sociobiological Perspective  Proposed by: Sigmund Freud Believes in Reactive PERSPECTIVE 1: Development and qualitative PSYCHOANALYTIC changes over time. Believes that people are born with biological drives that needs to be satisfied.  People are motivated to satisfy their urges. PERSPECTIVE 1: Early experiences shaped later functioning. PSYCHOANALYTIC Childhood as an important precursor of adult behavior.  3 hypothetical parts of PERSPECTIVE 1: personality Id - Pleasure Principle PSYCHOANALYTIC Ego - Reality Principle Superego - Moral Principle ⚬ 5-6 years old PSYCHOSEXUAL Oral (birth to 12-18 months) DEVELOPMENT Anal (12 - 18 months to 3 years) Sigmund Freud Phallic (3 to 6 years old) Latency (6 years to puberty) Genital (puberty through adulthood) FIXATION If children receive too little or too much gratification in any of these stages, they are at risk of fixation. Fixation – an arrest in development that can show up in adult personality. PHALLIC STAGE A key event in psychosexual development occurs in the phallic stage of early childhood. Boy - Oedipus Complex Girl - Electra Complex ⚬ ·The anxiety brought by these complexes are resolved by identifying with the same-sex parent and repressing the sexual attachment. LATENCY STAGE A period of emotional calm and intellectual and social exploration. They redirect their sexual energies into other pursuits, such as schoolwork, hobbies and sports.  Erik Erikson modified and extended Freudian theory by emphasizing the influence of society on the developing personality. PSYCHOSOCIAL Cover 8 stages across the life span wherein in each stage involves crisis in personality. DEVELOPMENT Each stage requires balancing the positive trait and a corresponding negative one. ·The positive quality should dominate, but some degrees of the negative quality is needed as well for optimal development.  Erikson also highlighted the social clock – or the PSYCHOSOCIAL conventional, culturally preferred timing of important life events. DEVELOPMENT He held a much more positive view of development than Freud. PERSPECTIVE 2: LEARNING continuous (incremental Believes that development as quantitative changes over time, and reactive (responses in environmental input). Argued that development was the result of learning – a relatively long-lasting change based on experience or adaptation to the environment PERSPECTIVE 2: LEARNING in the inner working of the mind Learning theorists were not interested because those processes could not be directly observed. ⚬ Behavior is observable and objective. ⚬ Two major subtheories: ￭ ·Behaviorism ￭ · Classical Conditioning ￭ · Operant Conditioning ￭ ·Social Learning Approach BEHAVIORISM Mechanistic theory that describes observed behavior as a predictable response to experience. All human beings at all ages learn about the world the same way other organisms do – people react to the surroundings (reactive) CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Ivan Pavlov Learning based on associating a stimulus that does not ordinarily elicit a response with another stimulus that does elicit the response. OPERANT CONDITIONING B.F Skinner Learning based on association of the behavior with its consequences. Learning based on reinforcement or punishment. OPERANT CONDITIONING Reinforcement ⚬ ·The process by which a behavior is strengthened, increasing the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated. OPERANT CONDITIONING Punishment ⚬ The process by which a behavior is weakened, decreasing the likelihood of repetition. OPERANT CONDITIONING SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY Albert Bandura Theory that behaviors are learned by observing and imitating models. Also called as Social Cognitive Theory. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY Suggested that the impetus for development is bidirectional (reciprocal determinism) ⚬ Reciprocal Determinism – The person acts on the world as the world acts on the person. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY Maintains that people learn behavior by observing and imitating models – meaning, by watching other people. (Observational Learning) Self-Efficacy – Sense of one’s capability to accomplish a task. PERSPECTIVE 3: COGNITIVE Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural theory of Cognitive Development Information-Processing Approach PIAGETIAN APPROACH - COGNITIVE STAGE THEORY Jean Piaget- reintroduced the concept of scientific inquiry into mental states. Viewed the development organismically (as the product of children’s attempts to understand and act upon their world. Also believes in qualitative development (stages characterizing development at different ages. PIAGETIAN APPROACH - COGNITIVE STAGE THEORY All human are born with the capacity to adapt to the environment, thus the individual grows and acquires greater competence. This cognitive growth occurs and is possible due to the three interrelated processes: ⚬ Organization ⚬ Adaptation ￭ Assimilation ￭ Accommodation ⚬ Equilibration ORGANIZATION ·Putting the schemes into category based on its similarities to each other. Schemes - way of organizing information about the world that govern the way the child thinks and behaves in a particular situation. ADAPTATION How an individual handles new information in light of what they already know. ·Occurs in two complementary processes: Assimilation Accommodation  ADAPTATION Accommodation Assimilation Adjusting one’s cognitive Taking in new information structures to fit the new and incorporating it into information existing cognitive structures ex. all animals that fly is a ex. an animal that fly is a bird, that bat is flying but is bird, that animal flies, does not have feathers, so it therefore it is a bird is not a bird. Therefore, not all animals that fly is a bird. EQUILIBRATION ·Tendency to seek a stable balance among cognitive elements. ·Achieved through a balance between assimilation and accommodation. ·The quest for equilibrium is the driving force behind cognitive growth. COGNITIVE STAGES OF Sensorimotor (birth to 2 years) DEVELOPMENT Preoperational Jean Piaget (2 to 7 years) Concrete Operational (7 to 11 years) Formal Operational (11 years through adulthood) SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY Lev Vygotsky Focused on the social and cultural processes that guide children’s cognitive development He also believe that children learn collaboratively through social interaction and shared activities. Development is not universal as there are as many ways to develop as there are different cultures and different experiences SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY Lev Vygotsky According to him, adults or more advanced peers must help direct and organize a children’s learning. This guidance is most effective In helping children cross the ZPD. Zone of Proximal Development – Gap between what they are already able to do by themselves and what they can accomplish with assistance. Scaffolding – temporary support to help a child master a task; helps greatly in development INFORMATION- PROCESSING APPROACH Just an umbrella of wide range of theories. Approach to the study of cognitive development by observing and analyzing the mental processes involved in perceiving and handling information. INFORMATION- PROCESSING APPROACH Approach to the study of cognitive development that analyzes processes involved in perceiving and handling information. Its models are often used by psychologists to test, diagnose, and treat learning problems. PERSPECTIVE 4: CONTEXTUAL Development can be understood only in its social context. Contextualists see the individual not as a separate entity interacting with the environment but as an inseparable part of it. BIOECOLOGICAL THEORY Represented a set of rings with the developing URIE BRONFENBRENNER child in the middle. The child is not seen as just an outcome of development; the child is an active shaper of development, but the child does not exist in isolation. To understand development, we must see the child within the context of the multiple environments surrounding them. BIOECOLOGICAL THEORY URIE BRONFENBRENNER Helps us to see variety of influences in development. And reminds us that development of people in one culture may not apply equally to people in other societies or cultural groups. BIOECOLOGICAL THEORY URIE BRONFENBRENNER  Bioecological Theory The everyday environment of home, work, school, or neighborhood. Face-to-face Microsystem interaction with people in daily settings. Interlocking influence of microsystems. Ex. A parent’s bad day at work may affect interactions with a child later that evening in a negative way. Despite the child never been Mesosystem actually gone to the workplace, a child is still affected by it. Interaction between a microsystem and an outside system or institution. Country, Exosystem Educational System, Transportation System, Parent’s Friends, Religious Hierarchy, etc. Consists of overarching cultural patterns, such as dominant beliefs, ideologies, economic Macrosystem and political systems. Individuals are affected by what type of political system they live in. Represents the dimension of time. As time passes, changes occur. Ex. Migration, divorce of Chronosystem parents, war, etc. PERSPECTIVE 5: EVOLUTIONARY/ SOCIOBIOLOGICAL View of human development that focus on evolutionary and biological bases of behavior. Influenced by Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution – draws on findings of anthropology, ecology, genetics, ethology, and evolutionary psychology to explain the adaptive, or survival, value of behavior for an individual or species. PERSPECTIVE 5: CEVOLUTIONARY/ SOCIOBIOLOGICAL “The Process of Natural Selection” Aka. Survival of the fittest Fit characteristics are selected to be passed on, and others die out. Ethology – study of distinctive adaptive behaviors of species of animals that have evolved to increase survival of the species. PERSPECTIVE 5: EVOLUTIONARY/ SOCIOBIOLOGICAL Evolutionary Psychology – Application of Darwinian Principles of natural selection and survival of the fittest to individual behavior. Cognitive Adaptation - Psychological products of natural selection on human ex. Evolution of brain to find certain parts of body to be attractive, to find dominance, perceiving babies as cute, access to resources, etc.  RESEARCH METHODS Quantitative Research Qualitative Research Research that deals with Research that focuses on objectively measurable data. nonnumerical data, such as subjective experiences, feelings, or Focuses on how much, how many, beliefs. all that are amenable to statistical analysis. Focuses on the why and how of behavior.  DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS Cross- Cross- Longitudinal Sectional Sequential