Psych 111 Exam 2 PDF

Chapter 11: Motivation General Theories of Motivation: Instinct: This theory posits that behavior is driven by innate biological instincts. For example, birds migrating are triggered by environmental cues like temperature changes. Drive (Drive Reduction Theory): Suggests that we...

Chapter 11: Motivation General Theories of Motivation: Instinct: This theory posits that behavior is driven by innate biological instincts. For example, birds migrating are triggered by environmental cues like temperature changes. Drive (Drive Reduction Theory): Suggests that we are motivated to reduce internal tensions caused by unmet biological needs. For example, hunger creates a drive to eat, which reduces the tension when satisfied. Arousal: According to the Yerkes-Dodson Law, there's an optimal level of arousal for performance. Too little arousal can lead to boredom, while too much can cause anxiety. Finding the right balance is key. Incentive: This theory emphasizes external stimuli as motivators. For instance, the promise of a reward (like money or praise) can drive us to act. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: This is a pyramid of human needs arranged from basic to advanced: ○ Physiological Needs: Essential for survival (food, water). ○ Safety Needs: Security and stability. ○ Belongingness and Love: Social relationships and connections. ○ Esteem Needs: Recognition and self-respect. ○ Self-Actualization: Reaching one’s full potential and creativity. ○ Self-Transcendence: Helping others achieve their potential. Physiological Mechanisms of Hunger: Glucose: A type of sugar in the blood that signals hunger when levels drop. Hypothalamus: A brain region that regulates hunger and signals when to eat or stop eating. Hormones: ○ Leptin: Produced by fat cells; signals fullness. ○ Ghrelin: Secreted by the stomach; signals hunger. Eating Disorders: Obesity: Characterized by excessive body fat due to poor diet and lifestyle choices. It can lead to various health issues. Anorexia Nervosa: An eating disorder marked by extreme weight loss, distorted body image, and intense fear of gaining weight. Bulimia Nervosa: Involves cycles of binge eating followed by purging (vomiting, laxatives) to prevent weight gain.3 Social Motives: Power: Desire to influence or control others. Belongingness: Need for social connection and acceptance.  Affiliation: Desire for companionship and friendship. Intimacy: Deep emotional connections with others. Achievement: Drive to excel and succeed in tasks. Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation: Intrinsic Motivation: Engaging in an activity for its own sake (e.g., reading for pleasure). Extrinsic Motivation: Performing an activity to earn rewards or avoid punishment (e.g., studying for grades). Chapter 9: Thinking and Language Thinking: Well-Defined vs. Ill-Defined Problems: Well-defined problems have clear solutions (e.g., math problems), while ill-defined problems lack clear solutions and can vary widely (e.g., personal dilemmas). Problem-Solving Methods: ○ Algorithms: Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution if followed correctly (e.g., a recipe). ○ Heuristics: Mental shortcuts that simplify decision-making, such as trial and error or hill climbing (moving towards the goal incrementally). Mental Set: The tendency to approach problems in a particular way, often based on past experiences. This can limit creativity. Functional Fixedness: A cognitive bias that limits a person to use an object only in the way it is traditionally used. For example, seeing a paperclip only as a clip rather than a tool for other uses. Reasoning Heuristics/Biases: Representativeness Heuristic: Judging the likelihood of something based on how well it matches a prototype. Availability Heuristic: Estimating the frequency of events based on how easily examples come to mind (e.g., fearing plane crashes because they are widely reported). Framing Effect: Decisions are influenced by how information is presented. Overconfidence Bias: Tendency to overestimate one's abilities or knowledge. Anchoring: Relying too heavily on the first piece of information encountered when making decisions. Language Properties: Arbitrary Symbolism: Words are symbols that have no inherent connection to their meanings.  Generative: Language can create infinite new sentences from a finite set of rules. Structured at Multiple Levels: Language is organized in phonemes (sounds), morphemes (meaning), words, phrases, and sentences. Neurobiology of Language: Broca’s Aphasia: Difficulty in speech production due to damage in Broca's area (left frontal lobe), leading to broken speech. Wernicke’s Aphasia: Difficulty in language comprehension due to damage in Wernicke's area (left temporal lobe), often resulting in nonsensical speech. Chapter 14: Personality Freud’s Models: Topographical Model: Divides the mind into conscious (thoughts we are aware of), preconscious (thoughts we can bring to consciousness), and unconscious (repressed thoughts). Structural Model: ○ Id: The primal part of personality driven by the pleasure principle (wants immediate gratification). ○ Ego: Mediator that operates on the reality principle, balancing the demands of the id and the constraints of reality. ○ Superego: Represents internalized societal rules and morals; often causes guilt. Defense Mechanisms: Unconscious strategies to protect the ego from anxiety: ○ Repression: Pushing distressing thoughts into the unconscious. ○ Denial: Refusing to accept reality. ○ Projection: Attributing one’s own unacceptable feelings to others. ○ Reaction Formation: Behaving in a way that's opposite to one's true feelings. ○ Rationalization: Justifying behaviors with logical reasons, avoiding the real reasons. ○ Regression: Reverting to behaviors typical of an earlier stage of development. ○ Displacement: Redirecting feelings to a safer target. ○ Sublimation: Channeling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable actions (e.g., art). Five Factor Model of Personality (Big Five): Extraversion: Sociability and assertiveness. Neuroticism: Emotional stability vs. instability. Agreeableness: Compassion vs. antagonism. Conscientiousness: Organization vs. carelessness. Openness: Willingness to try new things vs. preference for routine. Cognitive-Social Learning Theory: Self-Efficacy: Belief in one’s capabilities to achieve a goal influences motivation and behavior. Locus of Control: Refers to the extent to which individuals believe they can control events affecting them. An internal locus means they believe they can influence outcomes, while an external locus means they attribute outcomes to external factors. Chapter 5: Developmental Psychology Genetics: Monozygotic (Identical) Twins: Share 100% of their genes; used to study genetic influences on behavior. Dizygotic (Fraternal) Twins: Share 50% of their genes; can help determine environmental vs. genetic impacts. Behavior Genetics Methods: Twin Studies: Compare similarities between identical and fraternal twins to assess genetic influence. Adoption Studies: Compare adopted children with biological and adoptive parents to isolate environmental factors. Imprinting: A rapid learning process in young animals that establishes a bond with caregivers, seen in species like ducks. Visual Preferences in Newborns: Studies show infants prefer to look at faces over other objects, suggesting an innate predisposition for social interaction. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development: Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years): Learning through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. Key concept: object permanence (understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight). Preoperational Stage (2-7 years): Development of language and symbolic thinking. However, thinking is egocentric (difficulty seeing things from others' perspectives) and lacks understanding of conservation (e.g., liquid in different-shaped containers). Concrete Operations Stage (7-11 years): Logical thinking about concrete events. Understanding of conservation and the ability to perform operations