Behavioural Science Notes PT.2 PDF

Week 9-Language and Thinking Part 1: Introduction to Language Elements of language* Syntax Semantics Pragmatics Discourse Top-down vs bottom-up processing Top-down: Sensory information is interpreted in the light of existing context, expectations, and prior knowledge to understand...

Week 9-Language and Thinking Part 1: Introduction to Language Elements of language* Syntax Semantics Pragmatics Discourse Top-down vs bottom-up processing Top-down: Sensory information is interpreted in the light of existing context, expectations, and prior knowledge to understand language Bottom-up: Individual elements like sounds or letters are combined to form a unified perception. Nature or nurture? ↬ Nature: Chomsky Universal Grammar Language acquisition device (LAD) Critical Period Hypothesis ↬ Nurture: Skinner, Vygotsky Imitation, reinforcement Learning through interaction Social Interactionist Theory Language development in Infancy Part 2: Introduction to Thinking and Cognitive Processes Units of thought: * Concepts Categorisation Propositions Mental images Mental models Schemas Theory of mind Reasoning, problem solving, and decision making: * Deductive Reasoning: The test * Problem Solving * ↬ Algorithms ↬ Mental simulations ↬ Barriers to problem solving: Functional fixedness Mental set Confirmation bias Problem solving, and decision making: Stages* Example of how the stages are used* Heuristics: *  Availability heuristic Representative heuristic Anchoring heuristic Part 3: The Interplay between Language and Thinking Language and Thought: Core Theories The Whorfian Hypothesis * Chomsky’s Universal Grammar *  Innate Language capacity Shared grammatical structures Language Acquisition Device Critical Period Hypothesis Explicit vs. Implicit Cognition* Language, Thought, and Culture* Cultural differences in language Representations in time Mandarin vs English Pormpuraaw people (Boroditsky & Gaby, 2010) Bilingualism & multilingualism Cognitive flexibility Emotional expression Module Summary ↬ Language: Elements Development of Language ↬ Thinking and Cognitive Processes: Units of thought Reasoning, problem solving, and decision making ↬ Interplay between Language and Thinking: Core Theories Language, Thought, and Culture Week 10: Motivation & Emotion Part 1: Motivation What is motivation? * Motivation = the "Why" of behaviour: ↬ “Motivation refers to the “why” of behaviour, not the “how.” Why do we engage in certain behaviours and have certain feelings and thoughts but not others?” (Deckers, 2010, p.xvii). ↬ Motivation refers to the driving force behind behaviour that leads us to pursue some things and avoid others (Burton, Westen & Kowalski, 2023) Motivation is the concept we use to describe: ↬ Forces acting on or within an organism to initiate and direct behaviour ↬ Differences in the intensity of behaviour ↬ Persistence of behaviour Common view: 'Different perspectives' in motivation * Each provides important contributions to understanding motivation, but… Messy… overlapping descriptions and approaches to understanding a single concept Why this approach from ‘different perspectives’? Psychology - a young and disintegrated science Psychology is a young science ↬ 1879 - Opening of Wilhelm Wundt's laboratory, University of Leipzig Multiple 'schools of thought' ↬ Historical schools in psychology ↬ Ongoing legacy in present psychological 'fields' ↬ Overlap in subject matter across the fields ↬ ‘Different perspectives’ approach Can there be a more integrated approach? ↬ Motivation of central relevance to most areas in psychology ↬ Ideal opportunity for an integrated approach ↬ To complement the different perspectives approach, let’s explore one way to bring these perspectives together… What do we study in psychology? Psychology is: ↬ Traditional definition: The science of ‘mind’ & 'behaviour‘or ‘mental processes and ‘behaviour’ Disjointed Leaves out important aspects ‘Mind’ not adequately defined Martin's definition: The study of the functional interaction between nervous systems and their environments Nervous system and environments: * Questions to explore… 1.Response mechanism Simple instinctual/reflexive response system? Generalised response system (emotions, drives)? Conscious decision/plan to act? 2.Input/sensory mechanism Simple sensory detection?  Object recognition/semantic memory? Personal (episodic) memory? Self-conscious/abstract belief? 3.How did the two become connected? Note: connection between the two denotes the ‘relevance’ or meaning of the stimulus to the organism. Note: Connection underpins the function of the entire psychological process. Part 2: Mechanisms of motivation* Much discussion in motivation theory focusses on systems that coordinate behavioural patterns (drives, emotions, etc.) Two important distinctions used to categorise motivational systems ↬ Respond mostly to internal bodily stimuli vs external stimuli/memories/beliefs ↬ Hedonistic vs homeostatic goal Internal vs external motivators * External motivators: ↬ Behaviour triggered by something in the external environment Internal motivators: ↬ Behaviour triggered by an internal 'need' or 'drive’ (often connected to a bodily state)  Typical pattern in both is that: ↬ an environment is judged as non-optimal ↬ responses triggered to attempt to optimise environment (Not uncontroversial, but commonly used distinction) Hedonism vs Homeostasis* Hedonism ↬ Stimulus is: Good = want more Bad = want less Typically (but not always) have a set affective valence (pleasurable or unpleasurable feeling/sensation) Homeostasis ↬ Maintenance of a state of equilibrium ↬ Affective valence of stimulus context dependant Types of motivational system  Primarily internal or external triggers? Have primarily hedonistic or homeostatic aims? Part 3: Emotions Defining emotions* What is emotion? Yet to be adequately defined Folk psychology (everyday use of the term) ↬ Emotion as 'feelings' (conscious 'feeling- states') Emotions in functional context ↬ “An emotion is an inferred complex sequence of reactions to a stimulus and includes cognitive evaluations, subjective changes, autonomic and neural arousal, impulses to action, and behaviour designed to have an effect upon the stimulus that initiated the complex sequence.” (Plutchik, 1984) Basic versus self-conscious emotions * How many emotions are there? Many different words used to describe emotional states Some similar, some different across cultures Primary/basic emotions (Ekman and colleagues): ↬ Anger ↬ Disgust ↬ Fear ↬ Happiness ↬ Sadness ↬ Surprise Secondary/social/self-conscious emotions: ↬ Pride ↬ Shame ↬ Guilt ↬ Embarrassment Self-knowledge of emotions and emotional regulation: ‘Head or the heart’? Do emotions always control our behaviour? No… Additional components of emotion ↬ subjective experience ↬ self-knowledge Relevance to clinical work * Significant proportion of the work of practicing psychologists is assisting people to: ↬ Better regulate and manage automatic emotional reactions, by... ↬ Building their self-knowledge of their emotions, and then… ↬ Developing skills to regulate (calm and de-escalate) those emotions and maintain behaviours that will decrease emotional intensity over time. Week 11: Psychopathology Part 1: Mental illness prevalence and impact Mental illness is extremely common Over their lifetime: Australian Bureau of Statistics (2020-2022) ↬ 42.9% people aged 16-85 had a mental disorder at some time This lasted for 12+ months for: ↬ 21.5% people aged 16-85 ↬ 38.8% people aged 16-24 Breakdown by type: ↬ 28.8% have had an anxiety-related disorder ↬ 19% have had a substance use disorder ↬ 16% have had an affective disorder In the last 12 months: Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (2024): ↬ 1 in 5 (22%) people aged 16-85 had a mental disorder ↬ 17% had an anxiety disorder ↬ 8% had an affective disorder ↬ 3% had a substance use disorder Impacts Functional impacts (HILDA survey, 2021) People with chronic mental illness ↬ 17% need help or supervision in daily life ↬ 59% = workplace difficulties ↬ 58% of students = difficulties with education Suicide (Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2024) ↬ 3249 in 2022 ↬ Three times more than road fatalities ↬ Leading cause of death in 15-44 age group Economic impacts (Productivity Commission estimates, 2020) ↬ Mental illness and suicide cost the Australian economy $70bn/yr. Particular groups of concern (AIHW): Overall prevalence Young people ↬ Mental illness highest in 16-25 age groups, decreasing over time Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander (2018-2019) ↬ Mental illness prevalence of 24% (vs 22%) but… ↬ Higher suicide rates: 4.6% of deaths in 2022 (vs 1.6%) LGBTQ+ reports of previous/current diagnoses (2019) ↬ 61% reported depression ↬47% reported anxiety Disability (2020-2021) ↬ 33% adults with disability = high psychological distress in last week (vs 12%) Gender Females ↬ Higher rates of mental illness overall ↬ 2 x more hospitalisation for self-harm ↬ Higher rates of suicide attempts  Males ↬ Significantly higher death by suicide ↬ M=7 per day ↬ F=3 per day Is mental illness getting worse? Part 2: What causes mental illness? * Complex question you’ll revisit throughout psychology study Two key concepts… Nature vs nurture ↬ Nature = Predisposed/genetic propensity ↬ Nurture = Impact of negative life experiences (trauma, abuse/neglect, non-optimal parenting/family environment, etc.) Diathesis-stress model ↬ Diathesis = underlying vulnerability ↬ Stress = current/recent events activating the underlying vulnerabilities ↬ Diathesis + stress = illness ↬ Applies to physical and mental health Diatheses* Genetic pre-disposition: ↬ Seen in many disorders (schizophrenia, bipolar, depression, anxiety, autism spectrum disorder, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder…) Epigenetic pre-disposition: ↬ Susceptibility to anxiety/stress, anger, etc.  Negative experiences: In childhood: Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) ↬ Childhood physical, sexual and emotional abuse ↬ Physical neglect and emotional neglect ↬ Exposure to family violence ↬ Parental substance use ↬ Parental mental illness ↬ Parental separation or divorce; and ↬ Parental incarceration ↬ In adulthood: Past trauma, other negative events Lead to: Vulnerabilities, reactiveness and coping tools/strategies Stress* Anything that overwhelms our ability to cope Acute environmental stressors: Could include: ↬ Loss (loved one, job, mobility/ability, etc.) ↬ Recent traumatic event (disaster, war, accident, etc.) ↬ Anything else causing high stress ↬ Overwhelm us quickly Chronic environmental stressors: Could include: ↬ Ongoing relational conflict ↬ Financial stress ↬ Chronic pain or illness ↬ Workplace bullying ↬ Overwhelm us slowly Trigger vulnerabilities and reactiveness, and overwhelm coping tools/strategies Causes of recent increase? We don’t know. Many possibilities… Genetic/epigenetic? ↬ Unlikely, due to quickly rising rates Early childhood environments ↬ Over-protective parenting of Gen Z’s? ↬ Smart phones/social media re-wiring brains? Acute and chronic environmental stressors ↬ Global stressors (war, climate change)? ↬ Increasing political polarisation (left vs right)? ↬ Severe economic inequality? ↬ Phones = Fingertip access to ALL the bad news? Mental health causation is complex. Keep an open mind and follow the science. Part 3: What is psychopathology?* Definitions ↬ Text: Psychopathology = Problematic patterns of thought, feeling or behaviour that disrupt an individual’s sense of wellbeing or social or occupational functioning. ↬ WHO: Mental disorder = Clinically significant disturbance in an individual’s cognition, emotional regulation, or behaviour Interchangeable terminology? ↬ Psychopathology ↬ Mental illness/disorder ↬ Abnormal psychology ↬ Older term (pathologizing?) ↬ Raises a question… what makes thoughts, feeling or behaviour ‘abnormal’? Ways to define ‘abnormal’? Objective symptoms * Description ↬ Mental illness = underlying physical abnormality ↬ Medical model - Illness like any other illness ↬ Underpins DSM Pros: ↬ Qualitative classification and standardised symptom descriptions aid research and communication ↬ Describes some mental illness very well (specific symptoms) Cons: ↬ Can be stigmatising (mental illness is more subtle than physical illnesses) ↬ Fails to describe other mental illness well (diffuse/varied symptoms, e.g. depression) ↬ Implies single causality Implies universality (definitions of mental illness vary across cultures and historical periods). Aside: Sociohistorical variation * Example: Homosexuality DSM-I (1952) ↬ Homosexuality classified as a ‘sexual deviation’. Ongoing research and activism to get this changed ↬ Alfred Kinsey (1947): Only 50% pop’n exclusively heterosexual ↬ Evelyn Hooker (1957): Homosexual men just as happy as heterosexual men ↬ Challenged by gay rights activists, esp. after 1969 Stonewall riots DSM-III (1980) ↬ Removed as disorder  Social values shift perspective on what is considered ‘normal’ by medical profession Thomas Szasz (1974) Mental illness = construct to encourage conforming to societal norms Aside: Cultural variation* Types and classifications of disorders ↬ Culture bound syndromes ↬ E.g. Hikikomori (Japan), Hwabyeong (Korea) Expression of disorders (symptoms) ↬ Culturally appropriate displays Prevalence of disorders ↬ Specific cultural and societal triggers Conception of the nature and causes of mental illness ↬ Cause in the person or external? ↬ Traditional Aboriginal societies ↬ Unusual behaviour caused by magic (other tribes, evil spirits) and curses Statistical abnormality* Social maladjustment* Description: ↬ Judgement of interaction between an individual and their environmental context ↬ Social norms define mental illness Pros: ↬ Accommodates cultural and historical variation Cons ↬ Suggests mental illness is entirely socially relative (no cross-culturally universal disorders?) ↬ Unusual does not imply unwell! Labels minorities as unwell ↬ Who defines the norms? ↬ Accommodates cross-cultural variation but not within/multi-cultural variation. Subjective unhappiness/distress* Description ↬ Mental illness = subjective distress to your thoughts, feelings, or decisions/behaviours Pros ↬ Common feature of many disorders ↬ Accommodates cultural and historical variation ↬ Affirming to the individual (you have a problem if you feel you have a problem) Cons Not a symptom of every disorder (ASPD) Distress is common in non-disorder contexts. How to distinguish? E.g. grief vs depression vs prolonged grief disorder (new in DSM-5-TR, 2022)? Returning to the definition Definition ↬ Text: Psychopathology = Problematic patterns of thought, feeling or behaviour that disrupt an individual’s sense of wellbeing or social or occupational functioning. Something is unusual about someone’s thoughts, feelings, or behaviour Given statistical/cultural/medical contexts.  + Impairment to either Subjective wellbeing (distress), or Social/occupational functioning. Part 4: Diagnosis and the DSM Why do we need to diagnose mental illnesses? Cons of diagnosing* Can be stigmatising ↬ By the self, by medical profession, by workplaces, by friends/relatives Labels can prevent progress ↬ Resigned to or identify negatively with the diagnosis ↬ Assuming diagnosis implies permanence (not always the case) Encourages assumptions ↬ “You have X so I already know about you” ↬ Individual variation in symptom presentation and causation may be over-looked Pros of diagnosing* For the person, receiving a diagnosis can ↬ Validate their challenges “↬ I’m not just making it up!” ↬ Relieve and normalise ↬ “I’m not the only one” ↬ Source of pride and community ↬ Neurodiversity pride movement (ASD, ADHD) Narrative changes: “My functional challenges are due to society, not me” Facilitates: Research into causes and treatments Selection of evidence-based treatment Pharmacological Selection of evidence-based therapies Communication between health professionals: Speed of information transmission Consistency and continuity of care DSM and ICD* Major classification systems:  ICD-11 (2022) International Classification of Disease WHO-endorsed common system for health problems DSM-5-TR (2022) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Published and maintained by American Psychiatric Association Principal tool for mental health diagnosis in Australia DSM revisions: Revisions DSM-I (1952) DSM-II (1968) DSM-III (1980) DSM-III-R (1987) DSM-IV (1994) DSM-IV-TR (2000) DSM-5 (2013) DSM-5-TR (2022) Updating to consider:  Improved scientific understanding Sociohistorical changes (type and prevalence of disorders) Improved understanding of cultural context Consistency with ICD groupings and labels DSM-5-TR: Major diagnostic categories Diagnostic process Criticisms of the DSM Week 12: Psychopathy Treatment Part 1: Mental health treatment in Australia Statistics on mental health treatment Australian Bureau of Statistics (2020- 2022) 17.4% 16-85 yr. olds had seen a health professional for mental health in last 12 months Gender breakdown ↬21.6% females ↬ 12.9% males  Age breakdown ↬ 22.9% aged 16-34 ↬17.4% aged 35-64 ↬8.1% aged 65-85 Who provides treatment for mental health issues? Formal training and government registration required: Psychologists ↬ Generalist ↬ Generalist + specialist endorsement qualification (clinical, forensic, educational developmental, etc.) Medical doctors ↬ General Practitioners ↬ Psychiatrists Other allied health professions with additional specialist training in mental health ↬ Accredited mental health social workers ↬ Accredited mental health Occupational Therapists ↬ Psychiatric nurse No government registration but training and professional accreditation available ↬ Counsellors ↬ Behaviour Support Practitioners ↬ Psychotherapists ↬ Coaches/mentors ↬Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health workers Each approaches mental health from slightly different assumptions and perspectives. All about being a psychologist in Australia Part 2: Treating mental health issues Biological treatments – Psychopharmacological* Biological treatments – Neuro-anatomical/physiological * ↬ Surgery: Example: Epilepsy, severe OCD Very rare nowadays ↬ Brain stimulation: ↬ Electro-Convulsive Therapy (ECT) Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) Electrical implants Counselling/practical supports* Psychological therapies* Common way psychological therapies address diatheses * Understanding diatheses - Two types of psychological system ↬ Unconscious/Automatic: Fast, intuitive, emotion-based, dependent upon previous experiences/learning Include beliefs about the world/self, emotions, and motivate specific behaviours Some hard-wired (reflexes/instincts), many learnt from past experiences (good and bad) Pros: Good for ‘quick and dirty’ effortless evaluation and reaction, e.g. ‘hungry tiger in front of you!’ Cons: Rigid/inflexible and narrow-focussed in how they understand and react to the world; see past experiences as 100% true ↬ Conscious/Controlled: Slow, controlled, can access rationality/logical thinking  Executive functioning/’frontal lobes’ Pros: Great for evaluating and changing behaviour; can think outside of past experiences (creativity, problem- solving); learning new behaviours (e.g. riding a bike) Cons: Slow and effortful (terrible if a hungry tiger is in front of you!!) Understanding diatheses – What are psychological vulnerabilities? ↬ Psychological vulnerabilities = automatic systems that react to the world with patterns of thought, emotion, and behaviour that display as psychological symptoms ↬ Symptoms reflect Lessons learnt in the past that no longer apply More/less intense emotions than are functional for the situation (e.g. phobias) Not knowing better ways to manage/ react to a situation Interpreting own psychology in unhelpful ways Common goal of most psychological therapies Example: Anger management Part 3: Introduction to Psychological Therapies Reminder: What psychological therapies do* Work in concert with… ↬ Biological treatments ↬ Counselling/practical supports To address the… ↬ Underlying vulnerabilities (diatheses) that make a client susceptible to developing a mental health diagnosis  Lots of different types of psychological therapy, but most address diatheses by ↬ Using conscious system to think or act differently, to ↬ Change or better manage automatic systems that are maladaptive (i.e. underpinning symptoms) Recap: Four broad areas targeted by therapies* What differs between therapies?  Evidence of efficacy ↬ Varies across therapies but strongest for CBT ↬ Training as a psychologist = strong foundation in evidence-based approaches =CBT ↬ Medicare rebates: Evidence-based therapies only But… ↬ Evidence is of symptom improvement ‘on average’ ↬ Not all clients benefit from CBT ↬ Client experience of CBT is not always positive/clients often ‘want more’ ↬ Older therapies will naturally be more researched ↬ Lack of evidence doesn’t imply a therapy is ineffective  Easy to do research with CBT (standardised structured treatment packages) 3 rd./4th wave therapies more tuned to individual clients (difficult to establish therapy X is effective when the therapy looks different for every client) Third and fourth wave therapies developed in response to limitations What does this mean for therapy today? Week 13: Health & Wellbeing Part 1: Health Psychology What is Health Psychology?* ↬ “Health psychology is devoted to understanding psychological influences on how people stay healthy, why they become ill and how they respond when they do get ill” ↬ Health psychologists may understand the causes of illness and provide treatment in areas relating to physical health and health related behaviours. They may help to promote positive health behaviours and manage health-compromising behaviours. Examples Treating depression in cancer patients Researching psychological factors contributing of obesity Providing advice to managing mental health in COVID-19 lockdowns Researching smoking behaviours Promoting safe sexual behaviours Informing public health policy Well-being* “A state of being comfortable, healthy or happy. An individual’s health and wellbeing is multidimensional, with environmental, social, biological, lifestyle, spiritual, vocational, societal and socioeconomic factors all interacting (AIHW, 2016a; APS, 2015).” Biopsychosocial model* Lifestyle-related illness:  Lifestyle choices and health-compromising behaviours are major contributors to the leading causes of death today. Type II diabetes increasing Health-related behaviours Health enhancing/promoting behaviours: ↬ Behaviours that improve health and health outcomes Examples: Exercise Diet and weight control Stress management Self-care Health compromising behaviours: ↬ Behaviours that lead to poorer health and health outcomes Risky sexual behaviours Substance abuse Smoking Sedentary behaviours Technology over-use Models of Health Health belief model Theory of planned behaviour Transtheoretical model Part 2: Obesity Obesity in Australia ↬ Overweight and obesity rates are among the highest in the world, with 36 percent of Australian adults being overweight and 31 percent being obese. ↬ One in four children aged 2–17 was overweight (17 percent) or obese (8.2 percent) in a recent year (AIHW, 2020e). BMI-Body Mass Index* ↬ “Determining whether a person is overweight or obese is typically done by calculating the individual’s body mass index (BMI): weight in kilograms divided by height in metres squared: kg/m2 (AIHW, 2020e; Wadden et al., 2002). Overweight if they have a BMI between 25 and 30 percent, and obese if they have a BMI of over 30 percent; depending on their gender and age (AIHW, 2020e). Obesity thus refers to an excessive accumulation of body fat. However, the BMI is flawed because it takes no account of potential differences in muscle mass. Someone with a large amount of lean muscle mass will weigh more than someone of similar height without the muscle. Thus, they will be classified as being overweight, but they do not have more fat.” Physical problems associated with obesity* ↬ musculoskeletal difficulties ↬ heart disease, ↬ high blood pressure ↬ type 2 diabetes ↬ sleep apnoea and different types of cancer. Psychosocial consequences of obesity * ↬ Low self esteem ↬ Dissatisfaction with body shape ↬ Discrimination and isolation ↬ Depression ↬ Stigma may contribute to psychological effects of obesity Causes of obesity * Body fat is regulated by the hormone leptin. ↬ People with higher levels of leptin generally have higher BMIs (Friedman, 2000). ↬ Leptin is produced by fat tissue and operates on the hypothalamus to regulate body weight. “Susceptible gene hypothesis” ↬ Certain genes increase the likelihood of, but do not guarantee, the development of a particular trait or characteristics (e.g., obesity). Social factors associated with obesity ↬ SES ↬ Environmental factors – diet and exercise ↬ Availability and affordability of healthy foods ↬ Increase in sedentary jobs Societal changes More time indoors for children More time on games and higher screen time Part 3: Exercise and physical activity Adult Recommendations* Adults should be active most days, preferably every day. Each week, adults should do either: 2.5 to 5 hours of moderate intensity physical activity – such as a brisk walk, golf, mowing the lawn or swimming. 1.25 to 2.5 hours of vigorous intensity physical activity – such as jogging, aerobics, fast cycling, soccer or netball. an equivalent combination of moderate and vigorous activities. Include muscle-strengthening activities as part of your daily physical activity on at least 2 days each week. This can be: ↬ push-ups ↬ pull-ups ↬ squats or lunges ↬ lifting weights ↬ household tasks that involve lifting, carrying or digging. ↬ Doing any physical activity is better than doing none Exercise* ↬ Textbook: Australian Bureau of Statistics reported that in 2011–12, 66.9 percent of Australians were either sedentary or had low levels of exercise, albeit an improvement from the low levels of exercise seen in 2007–08 (ABS, 2011). ↬ The 2014–15 survey found a small improvement, with approximately 56 percent of Australians undertaking the recommended level of physical activities each week (AIHW, 2016a). Australian Bureau of Statistics ‘Physical activity’ 27.2% of people aged 15 years and over met the physical activity guidelines in Australia. 73.4% of people aged 18-64 years undertook 150 minutes or more of physical activity in the last week. Nearly half (49.4%) of employed people aged 18-64 years described their day at work as mostly sitting. Type of exercise:* In 2020-21, half (50.9%) of people aged 15 years and over went walking for exercise, recreation or sport (excluding workplace activity) in the week prior to the interview. Females were more likely than males to walk for exercise (52.7% and 49.0% respectively). More than one in three (35.7%) people aged 15 years and over undertook moderate exercise, while 17.7% engaged in vigorous exercise One in three (32.5%) people 15 years and over reported completing strength or toning exercises and 46.0% reported walking for transport. Benefits of exercise* ↬ Muscular vigour will…always be needed to furnish the background of sanity, serenity, and cheerfulness to life,… to round off the wiry edge of our fretfulness, and make us goodhumoured and easy of approach (William James, 1899) Benefits in a range of health conditions and health overall: E.g. improve cardiovascular health, managing cancer side effects, pregnancy, older adults, improving mortality Depression Improved cognitive functioning Reduce risk of obesity Increasing exercise Workplace health – programs, gym memberships. Workplaces can help to promote healthy lifestyles for employees. Schools and universities also good places where exercise can be promoted. Lifestyle Programs The Australian Government is committed to promoting healthy lifestyles through various and diverse initiatives such as: Get Set 4 Life — Habits for Healthy Kids The Stephanie Alexander Kitchen Garden Foundation Healthy Spaces and Places Get up and Grow — Healthy Eating and Physical Activity for Early Childhood Part 4: Stress and Wellbeing What is Stress?* Stress: –A stimulus –A response –An interaction between an organism and its environment Stress: a pattern of cognitive appraisals, physiological responses and behavioural tendencies that occurs in response to a perceived imbalance between situational demands and the resources needed to deal with them. Stress is a psychobiological process, with both physiological and psychological components and consequences. Types of stressors* Stressors: stimuli that place demands on us and require us to adapt in some manner. Microstressors: daily hassles and minor annoyances. Major stressors: personal, negative events, acculturative stress.  Catastrophic events: tend to occur unexpectedly and affect large numbers of people. Catastrophic stressors* Bushfires Floods Cyclones ↬ Can lead to PTSD Stress and illness ↬ Stress can combine with other factors to influence physical illnesses. Physiological responses to stressors directly harm body systems. Stress can cause people to behave in ways that increase the risk of illness.  Stress can have an impact on people’s negative affect. Part 5: Resilience What is resilience? * Resiliency: ability to tolerate and thrive in highly stressful circumstances. Protective factors: resources that create resilience. Help people cope more effectively and include: ↬ Social support ↬ Physiological reactivity ↬ Coping skills/styles ↬ Personality Social support Theories of social support* ↬ Buffering hypothesis “Social support is a buffer or protective factor against the harmful effects of stress during high stress periods.” “Social support as a continuously positive force that makes the person less susceptible to stress in the first place. Coping mechanisms* Coping mechanisms are the ways people deal with stressful events. Problem-focused coping involves changing the situation. Emotion-focused coping aims to regulate the emotion generated by a stressful situation. Coping* The ways people respond to stress, as well as the situations they consider stressful, are in part culturally patterned. Members of minority groups who, for generations, experience a ceiling on their economic prospects because of discrimination sometimes develop a low-effort syndrome in which they seemingly stop making the kinds of active efforts that might alleviate some of their hardships. Coping self-efficacy* Coping self-efficacy: belief that we can perform the behaviours necessary to cope successfully. Specific to the particular situation. How can we increase self-efficacy* 1.Self mastery 2.Vicarious experiences 3.Verbal persuasion 4. Physiological states Seligman Learned Optimism vs. Helpless/Hopeless* Learned Optimism: From childhood: whether you view yourself as valuable and deserving or worthless and hopeless.  Explanatory style: The way we internally respond to good and bad events in our lives. Glass half full or half empty: Optimist vs. Pessimist. Optimistic explanatory style* ↬ Permanence: situation will be repeated ↬ Pervasiveness: generalizing to other event ↬ Personalization: see self as causal agent Developing and optimistic explanatory style* High optimism and succeeds: –Permanent –Pervasive –Internal High optimism and fails: –Temporary –Specific –External A person with a less resilient explanatory style* Low optimism and succeeds: –Temporary –Specific –External  Low optimism and fails: –Permanent –Pervasive –Internal