Psych 100 F24 Lecture 8: Development, PDF

Psychology 100: Developmental Psychology  Developmental Psychology Developmental Psychology is the scientific study of changes and continuities in human behavior over time Many psychological traits (e.g., social, emotional and cognitive styles, personality, susceptibility to mental...

Psychology 100: Developmental Psychology  Developmental Psychology Developmental Psychology is the scientific study of changes and continuities in human behavior over time Many psychological traits (e.g., social, emotional and cognitive styles, personality, susceptibility to mental illness) have their origins in early development Traditionally, developmental psychologists have studied only infants and children, but in recent years there has been more emphasis on lifespan development – From “womb to tomb”…  Freud’s Undeniable Influence Argued that he elements of our ‘psyche’ (mind) have their origins in early childhood development Sigmund Freud Emphasized the critical importance of caregiver- child interactions Argued that the foundation of a person’s future personality and behavior were “fixed” in the first ~5 years of life  Questions Developmental Psychologists Ask How do prenatal experiences influence brain development (and later behavior)? What do we come into the world ‘knowing’? What kinds of unique knowledge do we humans possess and when do we develop it? How do postnatal experiences influence our cognitive, social, emotional & moral behavior? In what ways do we continue to develop into adulthood?  Prenatal Development (Conception to ~40 weeks) Conception (1-2 weeks) Zygote (Day 1) (3-8 weeks) (9-40 weeks) Embryo Fetus The nervous system begins developing during the 3rd week of pregnancy… Prenatal Brain Influences Maternal Maternal Stress Exposure to (e.g., physical, emotional) Chemicals (e.g., mercury, lead, organics) Maternal Infections Maternal (e.g., viruses) Exposure Maternal to Drugs (e.g., prescription Malnutrition & recreational) (e.g., vitamin deficiencies)  Teratogens: The Thalidomide Tragedy Teratogens are substances that can harm a developing fetus  Bisphenol-A (BPA) Industrial chemical created in 1960s to make plastics and epoxy resins (used in coating metal products) Can disrupt the balance between the hormones estrogen and testosterone Has been linked in some studies to effects on reproductive physiology, cardiovascular function, brain development and cognition  Postnatal Brain Development Human babies are born with a few essential reflexes that are critical for survival (e.g., the “suckling reflex”) The postnatal brain develops very rapidly in the first year of life and for many years after We are born with many more neurons than we need! – Synaptogenesis (the formation of new synapses) increases rapidly during the 1st year of life – Synaptic pruning (the elimination of unused synapses) occurs during years 2-10 (and throughout adolescence) as neural circuits and pathways are refined based on experiences – This developmental “plasticity” creates critical periods for the development of psychologically- relevant functions and behaviors  Critical Periods (a.k.a. “Sensitive Periods”) Periods of active brain growth and plasticity during development when the brain is particularly sensitive to specific experiences (or types of stimulation) Konrad Certain skills must be acquired during Lorenz critical periods if they are to be adequately acquired at all – Visual perception – Motor learning – Language learning Human Sensitive Periods Certain experiences must be (Ease of Learning) experienced during critical periods Plasticity – Infant-caregiver bonding (e.g., attachment) Birth Infancy Childhood Age of Child Adolescence  A Critical Period for Language Development Building a Foundation for Sound Discrimination % Recognition of Difference Werker, 1995 Babies lose the ability to discriminate between contrasting phonemes of different languages by ~12 months of age!  Cognitive Development  Jean Piaget’s Constructivist Theory Children develop age-specific “Cat” Jean schemas that are used to Piaget Has a Has 4 make sense of the world legs tail – These schemas ‘unlock’ as children develop biologically When they are young, children first assimilate new Has fur Is a pet information into pre-existing schemas, whether that information fits or not As development proceeds, schemas broaden as children accommodate new and ? distinct forms of knowledge  Piaget’s Classic Stages of Cognitive Development Piaget theorized The adolescent can reason and think in hypothetical terms. that all children pass through FORMAL OPERATIONAL (12+ years) The child can think logically about concrete these stages in objects and can add and subtract. The child understands conservation & can ‘mind read’. the same CONCRETE OPERATIONAL (7-12 years) invariant The child uses symbols (words & images) to order represent objects, but does not reason logically. Children are egocentric in the early years of this phase. Near the end, concepts like conservation and theory of mind develop. PREOPERATIONAL (2-7 years) The infant experiences the world through direct sensory and motor contact. Object permanence develops during this stage. SENSORIMOTOR (0-2 years) Object Permanence Piaget believed that human children enter the world with no pre-existing “knowledge” He argued that very young babies experience the world through basic sensory and motor contact They lack the ability to know ? something exists that is not directly in front of them According to Piaget, the sense of object permanence develops during the sensorimotor stage  This never gets old… https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rVqJacvywAQ  Preoperational The “Three Mountain “How “What am I Problem” thinking?” ‘Egocentrism’ would I know?” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RDJ0qJTLohM  Concrete Operations Preoperational “Do these two Child Concrete “I’m Operational Child going to flip flasks contain the the right flask same amount “Yes.” over… “That one has of water?” How a b ou t n ow?” more water.” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GLj0IZFLKvg https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gA04ew6Oi9M An understanding of conservation marks the beginning of the concrete operational phase  Losing Egocentrism: Developing ‘Theory of Mind’ Anne The ‘Sally-Anne Test’ Sally Sally puts her marble in the red box Sally leaves the room ?? Anne moves Sally’s marble to the blue box Sally returns. Where will she look for her marble? Sally has a ‘false belief’ that the marble is in the red box  Is ‘Theory of Mind’ A Human Thing? a l ! i o n pt O Studying non-human primates allows developmental psychologists to gain insight into which cognitive abilities are uniquely human https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1s0dO_h7q7Q  Formal Operations https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hl7OGSf8T4Y  Modern Challenges to Piaget Cognitive abilities such as object permanence develop much earlier than Piaget believed Recent studies also suggest that infants have ? a basic understanding of ?? the physical world – e.g., Objects are solid; objects move through Do infants have contact; objects move in a continuous path; certain innate forms objects do not float in mid air of ‘knowledge’?  Babies & Numbers Wynn, 1992, Nature Baby looks at this more!  Nature vs. Nurture ? Plato Aristotle Nativism Empiricism Certain kinds of All knowledge is acquired knowledge are innate through experience  a l ! ti on O p https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8nz2dtv--ok&list=PL8dPuuaLjXtOPRKzVLY0jJY-uHOH9KVU6&index=18 Social & Emotional Development: Attachment Attachment  Harry Harlow’s Attachment Studies (late 1950s) Harry Harlow  Harlow’s Observations Monkeys placed in an unfamiliar room “clung to their cloth mother until they felt secure enough to explore” Monkeys placed in an unfamiliar room without their cloth mothers “froze in fear and cried, crouched down, or sucked their thumbs” Monkeys who were raised with only a wire mother had trouble digesting the milk and suffered from diarrhea more frequently Harlow concluded that a lack of contact comfort is psychologically stressful to young monkeys!  Human Observations Adult victims of child abuse are at greater risk for mental illness, obesity, diabetes and heart disease Persistent emotional neglect, family conflict, and conditions of harsh or inconsistent discipline have been associated with: – Compromised growth – Compromised cognitive development – Increased risk for adult obesity, depression, and anxiety disorders Humans have a need to attach! Bowlby & Ainsworth’s Attachment Theory A unique bond is formed during a critical period of John Mary infancy between an infant Bowlby Ainsworth and primary caregiver The child is said to develop an ‘internal working model’ of how the social world works from this early experience – Are people to be trusted? Are people reliable? Attachment can have several “styles” that influence much of later social development Ainsworth’s ‘Attachment Styles’ And later If caregiver is… Then a child develops… experiences… Attentive to the child’s emotional Secure Meaningful, Attachment loving and trustful and physical relationships needs Inconsistent attention to Anxious, insecure, child’s emotional Ambivalent and “clingy” and physical Attachment relationships needs Unavailable or Distant, rigid, rejecting for Avoidant and critical long periods Attachment relationships of time  The ‘Strange Situation’ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c9hAjUy4iZI Begin... A stranger enters the room... A stranger enters 1. 2. 3. Caregiver & child the room & interacts Caregiver leaves child play together with the caregiver alone with stranger “I’m “I’m back!” back!” 4. Caregiver returns & consoles child 5. Both caregiver & the stranger leave! 6. Caregiver returns & consoles child (the child is now alone) The child’s behavior to 1) the stranger & 2) the caregiver (both when they leave and return) is key!  The Secure A m b i va l e n t Avoidant Metrics... Attachment Attachment Attachment 60-70% of us! Intensely Separation distressed when No sign of distress Anxiety Distressed when when caregiver caregiver leaves caregiver leaves (Child’s response to leaves the room. caregiver leaving the the room. the room. room) Wary of stranger Stranger if caregiver is not OK with stranger Avoids stranger. Anxiety present, but OK Exhibits fear of and plays normally, (Child’s response to with stranger if even if caregiver is the stranger, with caregiver is stranger. and without the not present. caregiver) present. Reunion Happy when Approaches Behavior caregiver when No interest in caregiver they return, but caregiver when (Child’s response to returns. Easily the caregiver when not easily they return. they return to the consoled. room) consoled.  What Does a Child’s Behavior in the ‘Strange Situation’ Predict? Secure Ambivalent Avoidant Better emotion regulation, Higher susceptibility to Increased risk of suppressing better peer relationships and emotional dysregulation, emotions, internalizing strong interpersonal skills in mood disorders and problems and loneliness. childhood and adulthood. interpersonal conflicts. Difficulty forming close Greater likelihood of forming Clinginess, dependency, or relationships, tendency healthy, stable relationships difficulty with autonomy in towards emotional characterized by trust and relationships. detachment. Reduced intimacy. Greater tendency to engage empathy. Lower risk of anxiety, in hypervigilant behaviors, depression and other Greater likelihood of such as overusing health using emotionally avoidant psychological difficulties. services or exhibiting coping mechanisms (like Less prone to substance somatic complaints (e.g., workaholism or substance abuse or self-destructive frequent headaches or use), which can affect long- behaviors. stomachaches). term health. Social & Emotional Development: Prosocial & Moral Behavior Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development (The “Cognitive Developmental Theory of Moral Reasoning”) Preconventional Stage: Moral judgments are based on the prospect of reward or punishment – Infancy to around 10 years of age Conventional Stage: Based on respect for law, social norms, rules set by parents – Middle school to young adulthood Postconventional Stage: Based on abstract principles (e.g., fairness, justice) Lawrence Kohlberg – Adulthood onwards Kohlberg’s ‘Heinz’s Dilemma’ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5czp9S4u26M Don’t steal the drug because he could go to jail! Don’t steal the drug because it’s against the law! Steal the drug because the drug company is being unfair!  Haidt’s “Moral Foundations Theory” (“Social Intuitionist” Theory) Many contemporary psychologists have criticized Kohlberg’s stages of moral development for being Jonathan Haidt overly cognitive According to Haidt, we more often than not make moral decisions intuitively, and often instantaneously, in the absence of reasoning Haidt proposes that moral judgments are frequently intuitive and emotional rather than rational, relying on a kind of innate ‘moral sense’ The ‘Trolley Dilemma’ “Personal Choice” Adapted from Hauser et al, 2007, Mind & Language Push the big “Impersonal Choice” man onto the track to stop the train Pull the lever to divert the train 85% say “this is OK” Only 12% say “this is OK” NOT EMOTION-PROVOKING EMOTION-PROVOKING  An Innate ‘Moral Sense’? Paul Bloom Karen Wynn Recent work has suggested that even very young infants may have a fundamental sense of what is ‘right’, ‘wrong’ and ‘fair’ Infants as young as 3 months old prefer to look at and play with puppets that exhibit ‘nice’ behaviors over those that exhibit ‘mean’ behaviors Are we born with a ‘moral foundation’?  The Moral Life of Babies https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FRvVFW85IcU  Nature & Nurture (It’s a False Choice!) Plato Aristotle Nativism Empiricism Certain kinds of All knowledge is acquired knowledge are innate through experience Cognitive, social & moral development involves both “bottom-up” processes (evolutionary, innate capacities) and “top-down” processes (cognitive and social influences). Both innate inclinations and lived experiences play a critical role in development!  a l ! ti on O p https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YcQg1EshfIE&index=19&list=PL8dPuuaLjXtOPRKzVLY0jJY-uHOH9KVU6