PSYC 275 Exam 1 Notes PDF

Lecture 2 Intro to Biopsych The brain ○ Brain consumes 25% of body energy, only makes up 2% of body weight ○ Brain communicates via neurons via electrical and chemical signals ○ Infinite number of paths a single signal can take ○ Neuros...

Lecture 2 Intro to Biopsych The brain ○ Brain consumes 25% of body energy, only makes up 2% of body weight ○ Brain communicates via neurons via electrical and chemical signals ○ Infinite number of paths a single signal can take ○ Neuroscience → scientific study of the nervous system Biopsychology is one field → how the brain generates behaviour and cognitive functions The brain and behaviour ○ Psychology → scientific study of behaviour ○ Bio → scientific study of biology ○ = the scientific study of the biology of behaviour ○ Biopsychology is a young field yet rapidly growing Dr. D. O. Hebb → The Organization of Behaviour, 1949 Very influential Prof of psychology at mcgill At the time, the prevailing understanding was complex cognitive processes that give rise to these functions of the brain were simply TOO complex to be explained using physiological and chemical processes of the brain. Dr. Hebb disagreed! An integrative discipline and applies that integrative knowledge to the study of behaviour Considers neuropharmacology, neuropathology, neurochemistry, neurophysiology, neuroanatomy, neuroendocrinology Divisions of biopsychology ○ Physiological psychology ○ Psychopharmacology ○ Neuropsychology ○ Psychophysiology ○ Cognitive neuroscience ○ Comparative psychology  ○ These divisions often have overlap! Research approach to biopsychology ○ Involves humans and animals ○ Humans = participants Main advantage of using humans is we can use the HUMAN brain ○ Animals = subjects Why do we use nonhumans? Researchers can perform experimental procedures that cant be performed on humans. Also, human brains are similar to nonhuman brains! Using nonhuman subjects enables us to compare behaviour between species that have DIFF brain structures ○ Experiments = true experiments/pair experiment Has to have random assignment (MOST important) Will study effects of an independent variable on a dependent variable by manipulating the independent variable Allows a researcher to study cause and effect relationships High generalizability ○ Non-experiments = quasi-experiments and case studies Quasi → CANNOT have random assignment Case studies → focus on either a single or a very few number of participants/subjects Provides a more in-depth picture than experiments or qyasiexperiments Have very low generalizability ○ Research can be pure or applied Pure → conducted out of pure curiosity Applied → conducted to have an application in real life Combined = translational research Lecture 3 Model of biology of behaviour ○ Biopsychology working model Behaviour is a product of interaction between genes, unique experiences, and the individual’s perception of their life situations at any given time Genes Influenced by evolution Express traits that maximize our ability to survive Unique life experiences we have will modify the expression of our genes The way we behave in an environment is a result of the interaction of our unique neural makeup and our perception of the situation we’re in Behaviour that increases chance of survival = genes will have a higher chance of being passed on Darwin’s theory of evolution ○ Published in the origin of species in 1859 ○ Single most influential theory in the biological sciences ○ 3 types of evidence for support: The evolution of fossils across progressively higher geological layers changes systematically. This suggests organisms have evolved from a common ancestor There are striking structural similarities among diverse living species Major changes have been created in domestic plants and animals by programs of selective breeding Recent 4th evidence: evolution has been observed in progress, over a short time period as well as over millions of years ○ Natural selection Members within a species can vary in their structure, physiology, and behaviour Within each species any heritable trait that increases the chances of survival of that species will be selected to carry on Evolution and behaviour ○ Some behaviours can increase our chances of passing on genes to next gens (finding food, defending young ones, protecting yourself)  ○ Social dominance among male members of a species: Creation of a hierarchy of social dominance involving confrontational encounters with other male members within the species Can be physical damage, posturing, threatening behaviour, etc until one male submits Through this, a hierarchy forms The most dominant male populates the most ○ Social dominance among female members of a species: The dominant female will produce more and healthier offspring They are more likely to maintain access to productive food foraging areas ○ Courtship displays Repopulation follows courtship displays Male signals interest, female reciprocates, male responds Reproductive barrier → courtship behaviour within a subpopulation of species can change Courtship behaviourt that doesnt lead to repopulation will die off Evolution of human brain ○ Scientists look at the evolution of: Absolute size of the brain It was once thought a larger brain = higher intelligence. This is not true Across species, humans dont have the biggest brain Larger organisms need a greater amount of neural tissue to control their larger bodies Weight of the brain with respect to the weight of the entire body as a percentage Humans = 2.3% of our body weight Elephants = 0.2% of their body weight Size of diff components of the brain with respect to other components of the brain Cerebrum → responsible for complex, higher order cognitive and executive functions (learning, perception, motivation, decision making)  ○ Increase in size of cerebrum happens at a greater rate over evolution that that of the brainstem Brainstem → responsible for lower order subconscious and reflexive functions that keep the body alive (heart rate, respiration, blood glucose levels) Mendelian genetics ○ Charles darwin did not understand what caused members within the same species to be diff from each other OR how genes were passed across generations from parent to child ○ Gregor Mendel studied dichotomous traits of seeds (traits available only in two forms ex tall or short, brown or white, ex) One trait would be dominant, one would be recessive Mendel created a true-breeding line = a generation whose members produce offspring with the same characteristics as themselves Mendel cross-bred plants and observed the trait that is observed ¾ of the time is the dominant trait, and the trait observed ¼ of the time is the recessive trait Mendel found what we see is the “phenotype” of the trait. The genetic makeup that we don’t physically see is its “genotype” ○ 4 central ideas from mendel’s work: Each dichotomous trait is controlled by genes Two genes control each dichotomous trait. Theyre ALLELES Heterozygous = the two alleles for a trait are different Homozygous alleles = the two alleles for a trait are identical One gene is dominant, the other is recessive For each dichotomous trait, one of the two alleles is inherited from each parent Lecture 4 Chromosomes ○ A cell is the basic building block of life; makes up all living organisms ○ A cell contains the nucleus which contains DNA. genetic material that codes for the traits we express ○ DNA are long strands coiled and packaged into chromosomes ○ Humans have 23 chromosomes. Each member of a pair has 1 of the 2 alleles in the same location in each member that controls dichotomous traits ○ Throughout life, cells divide. Cell division produces two identical cells from a single cell. The resulting daughter cells have the same genetic material as the parent cell. This requires a doubling of the 23 pairs of chromosomes into identical counterparts before cell division ○ Chromosome → DNA replication → cells divide (mitosis) → two diploid cells that contain the same amount of genetic material as the parent cell ○ Meiosis Produces gametes, the sex cells Starts with 23 pairs of chromosomes → meiosis I takes place (replication) → daughter nuclei divide into (meiosis II takes place, halving) → daughter nuclei II that contain HALF the amount of genetic material as the parent cell (haploid cells) ○ Gamete fertilization 23 single chromosomes from the egg cell + 23 single chromosomes from the sperm cell = non-gamete cell with 23 pairs of chromosomes (a zygote forms) After the zygote forms, mitosis takes over ○ What is the cause of genetic diversity in that offspring? 1. Random allocation After meiosis II, chromosomes need to align along the equator and cells divide along the equator The side that the chromosomes align on and place is random Random arrangement for random allocation of chromosomes during meiosis increases the chances of producing a daughter cell that has genetic diversity Main reason for genetic diversity  2. Genetic recombination During meiosis and chromosome alignment, the chromosomes exchange genetic material with one another. This increases the chances that the daughter cell will be different than the parent cell. Genetic code: DNA ○ Deoxyribose nucleic acid ○ Located inside the nucleus ○ One of the 4 building blocks of life (nucleic acids, carbs, fats, proteins) ○ DNA is a nucleic acid that contains the code for the production of proteins ○ DNA is a polymer molecule. Polymers are long chains of smaller units. The smaller units of a polymer are monomers Monomers for DNA are known as nucleotide bases, made of a phosphorous group, sugar, and nitrogenous base ○ DNA has 4 diff types of nucleotide bases (monomer) The 4 differ only in the type of nitrogenous base: Adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine ○ DNA is 2 polymers intertwined around each other in a double-helix fashion 2 strands of nucleotide bases The nitrogenous bases of 1 strand are complimentary to that of the other Adenine compliments thymine Guanine compliments cytosine The sequence of these bases constitute genetic code ○ Non-gamete cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes First 22 are autosomal The 23rd pair is the sex chromosomes ○ Gamete cells have 23 single chromosomes First 22 are autosomnal 23rd can be X or Y ○ After fertilization, the number of chromosomes doubles Genetic expression ○ Genetic code needs to be expressed for organisms to exhibit their traits ○ Gene expression → synthesis of proteins The code in DNA is used to make proteins: the central dogma of molecular biology  Proteins are polymers = made up of individual monomers The monomers for proteins are amino acids. There are 20 types of amino acids, so there are 20 types of monomers Proteins provide structural support to the body and are involved in physiological functions of cells ○ Hemoglobin gives blood cells the ability to carry oxygen and carbon dioxide How do we end up with different types of cells from non-gamete cells (brain, hair, skin)? ○ Different cells express different genes and therefore make different proteins. This gives them the ability to defer from each other DNA contain genetic material used to code for proteins = coding regions ○ Aside from coding regions, the rest of DNA are non-coding regions. Non-coding regions control the expression of these coding regions ○ The gene sequence in a coding region makes different proteins, and non-coding regions control the expression of coding regions ○ The promoter region controls gene expression by binding to DNA. Stretches of DNA that control whether a protein will be synthesized or not. Think of promoters as switches that can be turned up or down. Some promoters are activators, some are repressors ○ Protein synthesis will either take place or it will not! 1. Transcription ○ Happens inside the nucleus ○ The DNA is uncoiled. the part that encodes for protein is exposed and a complementary strand binds ○ The complementary strand is not COMPLETELY complementary. This strand is known as mRNA (messenger RNA) ○ RNA is another type of nucleic acid  ○ The complementary strand is transcribed → leaves nucleus → goes to cytoplasm and undergoes translation 2. Translation ○ The sequence of nucleotide bases is translated into a sequence of amino acids using proteins called ribosomes ○ Ribosomes read the mRNA and add amino acids until the entire protein is made Epigenetics: a better understanding of genetics ○ GENETICS: During meiosis, random allocation and genetic recombination lead to changes in gene sequence of dna in offspring, leading to diff in expression of genes in offspring EPIGENETICS: the study of causes in differences in gene expression OTHER than changes to the gene sequence of DNA that takes place during genetics ○ Life experiences can affect gene expression 1. DNA methylation Attachment of a methyl group to the DNA nucleotide base This can increase or decrease gene expression 2. Histone remodeling Histones = large protein molecules around which DNA is coiled in a systematic fashion Sometimes shape of histones can be changed or remodeled When histone proteins change their shape, this can change the shape of the coiled DNA This can increase or decrease gene expression Example of epigenetics ○ Ex. the maze study Heterogynous group of rats trained in a maze running task Goal = go through the maze, find the food at the end Rats were trained to make as few errors as possible In the original population, one group of rats made few (maze bright). The other group made a lot (maze dull). Over 21 generations, the maze bright rats were bred with other maze bright rats. Same for maze dull rats  Throughout the breeding, diff generations completed the maze task Outcome? As generations went on, maze bright offspring were better at the maze, and maze dull offspring were worse at the maze To control for effects, maze bright/dull rats were reared with parents of the opposite skill than their biological parents. Regardless of which parents offspring were reared with, they still performed similarly to their biological parents. Question: could experience change the performance of the rats? Enriched environment vs. impoverished environment Finding: the maze dull rats made more errors than the bright rats ONLY if they were reared in the impoverished environment. The dull rats did equally well as the bright rats, ONLY if both groups were reared in enriched environments Experience and environment DOES matter! This clearly demonstrates epigenetics Lecture 5 DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM ○ Central nervous system Has the brain and spinal cord housed in protective bony structures ○ Peripheral nervous system Outside the cranium and vertebrae column Somatic nervous system Interacts with anything that is external to our body Carried out by afferent nerves and efferent nerves ○ Afferent → bring in info sensory info from the outside to the inside of the central nervous system ○ Efferent → take out signals from the CNS to the external environment Take out signals to move the body, such as motor signals to move the skeletal muscles Autonomic nervous system Interacts with environment that is internal to the nervous system Regulates the body internally, ex digestion and heart rate Carried out by afferent and efferent nerves ○ Afferent → bring in signals from the internal organs to the CNS ○ Efferent → take out signals from the CNS to the internal organs (ex. Increase or decrease heart rate) Signals are carried out by either sympathetic or parasympathetic nerves, and serve the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. Each organ receives signals from both types of cells Sympathetic → nerves (first stage neurons) leave through the lumbar and thoracic spinal levels and make contact with another neuron (second stage neurons) which travel to the internal organs ○ First stage are located close to the spinal cord. Second stage have to  travel longer distances before contacting internal organs ○ Stimulate, organize, and mobilize energy resources in threatening situations ○ Involved in psychological arousal Parasympathetic ○ Leave the CNS from the brain and the bottom level of the spinal cord ○ First stage neurons travel further before contacting second stage neurons. Second stage neurons have a shorter travel distance ○ Conserve energy, involved in psychological relaxation Cranial nerves ○ Travel from the brain ○ 24 of them: 12 leave the right side, 12 leave the left side ○ Function → bring in sensory info to the brain (sensory cranial nerves), or take out motor signals to move muscles in the head (motor nerves), or do both ○ Motor cranial nerves in the autonomic nervous system are ONLY part of the parasympathetic nervous system MENINGES ○ Protect the CNS ○ dura, arachnoid, and pia mater → located inside the skull Between arachnoid and pia mater = sub-arachnoid space which has large blood vessels and cerebral spinal fluid VENTRICLES AND CEREBROSPINAL FLUID ○ Protects the CNS Provide support and cushioning to the brain ○ Ventricles = interconnected series of chambers, 4 in total Lateral, third, fourth ventricles. The third and fourth ventricle are connected via the cerebral aqueduct  After the fourth ventricle → central canal/spinal canal which spans the entire length of the spinal cord Cerebral spinal fluid is housed in the network of ventricles and central canal AND in the subarachnoid space All of these are connected by series of openings that form a single reservoir ○ Cerebral spinal fluid Produced by a network of capillaries and small blood vessels (“choroid plexus”) Extra fluid is absorbed from the subarachnoid space into the neural sinuses Neural sinuses = large blood-filled spaces that run through the dura matter and drain into jugular veins of the neck BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER ○ Protects the CNS ○ The nervous system requires oxygen and glucose while removing carbon dioxide and toxins The blood supply does this for the CNS The blood supply has to be tightly regulated. It is regulated by the barrier between the blood vessels and the neural tissue. This prevents the flow of toxic substances from the blood to the brain ○ Barrier can perform its function because the way the cells that make up the walls of the blood vessels that supply the blood system are tightly packed, UNLIKE those in the rest of the body This prevents the movement of large molecules like proteins, but not all, like glucose Glucose is transported across the barrier into the neural tissue of the CNS NEURONS AND GLIAL CELLS ○ Cells of the nervous system ○ Have a membrane as an outer layer, made up of two layers of fat molecules ○ Within the membrane are embedded proteins → channeling or signaling proteins ○ External features of neurons: Dendrites → antenna-like structures that receive signals from other cells Cone-region between axon and cell body  Axon → carries signals to the end of the neurons Ends of axon branches releases neurons to the synapse of the next cell ○ Internal features of neurons: Nucleus → contains genetic material Mitochondria → site of aerobic energy release Rough endoplasmic reticulum → site of protein synthesis Fluid endoplasmic reticulum → site of fat synthesis Internal environment of the cell - the organelles = the cytoplasm Ribosomes → involved in protein synthesis Golgi complex → packages molecules into vesicles Microtubials → railroad tracks used to transport vesicles Ends of axons (synaptic buttons) with synaptic vesicles → contain the chemicals involved in communication between cells and neurons (neurotransmitters!) Diff types of neurons One extension from the cell body = unipolar neuron Two extensions = bipolar neuron Multiple extensions = multipolar neuron ○ A multipolar neuron with a short or no axon at all = multipolar interneuron ○ Involved with integrating neural activity within a single brain structure than between brain structures ○ Naming convention in CNS Cell bodies of a group of neurons in the same location in the CNS → “NUCLEI” The axons of all the neurons are collectively → “TRACTS” ○ Naming conventions in PNS Group of cell bodies → “GANGLIA” Group of axons are collectively → “NERVE” ○ Glial Cells 4 types: Oligodendrocyte → CNS ONLY  ○ Have multiple extensions of cell bodies that cover the axons of multiple neurons within the CNS = MYELINATION, cover is MYELIN Schwann cells → PNS ONLY ○ A single cell myelinates a part of an axon of only one neuron within the PNS Microglial → NS ○ Respond to injury or disease by multiplying, engulf cellular debris, engulf entire cells, trigger inflammatory responses, and more Astrocytes ○ Largest glial cells → NS ○ Have extensions that cover the blood vessels that supply the CNS. theyre part of the blood-brain barrier! ○ Constrict or dilate blood vessels in the CNS ○ Make contact with neurons ○ And more! Lecture 6 DIRECTIONALITY IN THE NERVOUS SYSTEM ○ 3-axis system of directionality of structures Anterior → towards the nose, Posterior → towards the tail end Dorsal → towards the surface of the back OR top of the head, Ventral → towards the surface of the chest OR bottom of the head Medial → towards the midline of the spine, Lateral → away from the midline of the spine ○ Proximal → close to the CNS, Distal → far from the CNS Ex. the shoulders are proximal (in comparison) to the elbow (the shoulders are closer to the CNS than the elbows are) ○ Sections of the CNS Horizontal plane/transverse section Frontal plane/coronal section Sagittal plane → intersects the frontal section of the brain, right in the middle (midsagittal section) SPINAL CORD AND THE BRAIN ○ There are diff groups of axons (nerves) that enter the spinal cord at multiple places. There are 5 groups of 31 spinal nerves. The nerves are named after which area they enter the spinal cord through: Cervical nerves → 8 pairs Thoracic nerves → 12 pairs Lumbar nerves → 5 pairs Sacral nerves → 5 pairs Coccygeal nerve → 1 pairs Cranial nerves → 12 pairs (mentioned previously) Spinal nerves are both sensory AND motor on both sides of the spine ○ Cross-section of the spinal cord H-shaped grey matter → made up of unmyelinated interneurons and cell bodies (remember cell bodies arent myelinated!) Matter has two arms on each side. Dorsal and ventral horns White matter → surrounds the grey matter, made up of myelinated axons (remember axons are myelinated!)  Spinal nerves → connected to each side of the spinal cord, entering on their respective sides Before entering, each nerve is divided into 2 routes: 1 enters dorsal route, 1 enters ventral route Dorsal route → composed of sensory neurons (afferent). They are unipolar with only 1 extension ○ When axons enter, they are in the dorsal horn of the grey matter ○ When neurons leave spinal cord, they contact the 2nd stage neurons of the sympathetic AND parasympathetic nervous system which make contact with internal organs Ventral routes → motor neurons (efferent), multipolar (multiple extensions) ○ Part of the somatic AND autonomic nervous system ○ Cell bodies are located in the ventral horn of the grey matter ○ Motor neurons of the somatic nervous system leave the spinal chord and contact skeletal muscles where they cause them to contract ○ Neural Tube An embryo part develops into the nervous system → a fluid-filled tube known as the “neural tube” Has 3 swellings that develop into 4 major divisions of the CNS ○ Forebrain Telencephalon = cerebral hemispheres Highest level of development compared to other divisions External, wrinkly-shaped structure of the brain that sits on top of the other structures Diencephalon ○ Midbrain Mesencephalon Brainstem ○ Hindbrain  Metencephalon Myelencephalon Brainstem ○ Spinal cord MYELENCEPHALON AND METENCEPHALON ○ The hindbrain Myelencephalon = the medulla Has tracts that carries info between brain and body Has a network of tracts (“reticular formation”) ~100 nuclei that stretch from posterior end of myelencephalon to anterior end of the midbrain The medulla → arousal, sleep, attention, movement, muscle tone, and cardiac circulatory and respiratory reflexes Metencephalon = the pons and cerebellum Pons ○ ascending and descending tracts that connect the brain with rest of body ○ Help with the reticular formation Cerebellum ○ Sensory-motor structure Sensation and movement, PRECISE movements, helps us change/adapt our movement when the environment changes i.e. learning new motor programs ○ Cognitive functions Decision making, use of language MESENCEPHALON ○ The midbrain Dorsal → the tectum Two pairs of swellings on dorsal surface ○ Top = superior colliculi Visual-motor function, directing orientation ○ Bottom = inferior colliculi Auditory function  Ventral → the tegmentum Periaqueductal grey ○ Structure around the cerebral aqueduct that connects 3rd and 4th ventricles ○ Mediates the pain-reducing effects of opioids ○ Composed of the reticular formation and other tracts Red nucleus ○ Sensory-motor function Substantia nigra ○ Sensory-motor function Lecture 7 Diencephalon ○ Thalamus Made of 2 lobes, 1 in each hemisphere Each lobe is connected to each other by an intermediate-mass - Massa Intermedia On the surface → bands of myelinated axons (white lamina) Groups of nuclei Most of them project axons to cerebral cortex Sensory relay nuclei - most well-understood of the thalamus ○ Receives info from sensory receptors, thalamus processes it, thalamus relays it to the appropriate sensory cortices Non-sensory relay nuclei ○ Receive info from cerebral cortex and relay it within the cerebral cortex ○ There is feedback involved; sensory is 2-way ○ Hypothalamus Located below the anterior component of the thalamus Regulates motivated behaviours → eating, sleeping, sex Made up of numerous nuclei Exerts effects by regulating release of hormones from pituitary glands (anterior and posterior) ○ Pituitary gland *not part of diencephalon, located close Below the hypothalamus Releases hormones on command of the hypothalamus ○ Optic Chiasm *not part of diencephalon, located close Below the hypothalamus The place where some of the visual pathways cross over from one eye to the other side of the brain Telencephalon ○ The cerebral cortex 4 major lobes: Occipital lobe → vision  Parietal lobe → analyzing bodily sensations and perceptions of locations of sensations in relation to other external objects in the environment, directs our attention Temporal lobe ○ Superior temporal gyrus → hearing language ○ Middle part → certain types of memory ○ Inferior temporal cortex → identification of complex visual patters Frontal Lobe ○ Central gyrus → motor function ○ The rest that is anterior to the motor one → high-order, complex cognitive functions 90% of the cerebral cortex is a result of recent evolution, known as the “neocortex”. Here are properties of it: 1. Different types of cells located in the layers of the neocortex ○ Parametal cells → multipolar neurons with a parameter shape, long dendrites, long axons ○ Stellate cells → shaped like stars, short axons, mainly interneurons (recall interneurons have a short or no axon) 2. Differences in the layers of the cerebral cortex ○ Size of the cell bodies of neurons within the diff layers ○ Density of the cell bodies within the diff layers ○ Relative proportions of the number of parameter and stellate cells. There might be more of one or the other in a layer 3. Columnar organization of the neocortex ○ This organization is due to the vertical connections across the diff layers that are made because of the dendrites of the parameter cells ○ Neurons in a given column of the neocortex form a mini-circuit 4. Thickness of the diff layers ○ Thickness may vary across layers The “old cortex structure:  Hippocampus → located on the medial edge of the cerebral cortex ○ Has 3 layers ○ Memory function ○ Wrinkly structure Wrinkled because the cerebral cortex in human brain has folds. Why si this good? If there are folds, it increases the cortical area of the cerebral cortex without a need to increase the size and volume of the bony cranium that houses the brain Its a “gyrencephalic corticex” The bumps are know as gyri (gyrus, singular) ○ 1. Precentral gyrus ○ 2. Postcentral gyrus ○ 3. Superior temporal gyrus (in the temporal lobe, see above) In between the bumps are valleys = “sulcus”, or “sulci” ○ If these are DEEP enough, they are a “fissure”. There are 3 major fissures in the human brain: 1. Central fissure 2. Lateral fissure 3. Longitudinal fissure A mouse brain does not have folds Its a “lissencephalic cortex” ○ Within the frontal section is a cross-section of the brain There is grey matter of the cerebral cortex → unmyelinated cell bodies and unmyelinated neurons There is also white matter of the cerebral cortex → myelinated axons ○ Corpus Callosum Cerebral commissures connect the two hemispheres of the brain The corpus callosum is the LARGEST of these commissures Limbic System ○ Subcortical structure ○ Regulates motivated behaviours → cleaning, feeding, fighting, sexual behaviour ○ Made of structures arranged like a circuit around the thalamus  Amygdala connects to → hippocampus, connects to → cingulate cortex and fornix, connects to → septum and the mammilary bodies, which connect back in a circulatory way to the → amygdala. Circuit complete! Hippocampus → involved in types of memory Amygdala → emotion, fear Hypothalamus → motivated behaviours Basal Ganglia ○ Subcortical structure Caudate nucleus which has a head and tail, connects to → putamen Caudate + putamen = Striatum ○ Receive input from neocortex, output info to globus palicus Nucleus acumbens → part of the reward pathway ○ Regulates voluntary movement ○ Involved in decision making