PSY 333 Exam 2 Study Guide PDF

PSY 333 Exam 2 Study Guide Physical Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood Chapter 4 Brain Development Synaptic Blooming/ Synaptogenesis ○ Rapid formation of synapses Exuberant Synaptogenesis ○ Occurs in infancy, leading to...

PSY 333 Exam 2 Study Guide Physical Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood Chapter 4 Brain Development Synaptic Blooming/ Synaptogenesis ○ Rapid formation of synapses Exuberant Synaptogenesis ○ Occurs in infancy, leading to a high density of neural connections Synaptic Pruning ○ Synapses that are not used are eliminated, refining neural networks Fine Motor Skills Smaller, more precise movements, such as reaching and grasping ○ Stages include Pre-reaching (Newborn) Reaching with palmer grasp (3-4 months) Moving objects from hand to hand (4-5 months) Pincer grasp (9 months) Gross Motor Skills Large body movements, like crawling, standing, and walking ○ Rolling (2-7 months) Tummy-to-back comes first Back to tummy comes later  ○ Independent sitting (5-9 months) ○ Crawling (5-11 months) Not all babies crawl on all fours before they walk ○ Walking (9-17 months) Common Physical Conditions and Issues During Infancy 1. Bowel Movements a. Hard or dry stools may indicate dehydration b. increased frequency of watery stools may indicate diarrhea 2. Colic a. A condition marked by prolonged crying and discomfort in infants b. Often starts around 2-3 weeks and typically resolves by 3-4 months 3. Diaper Rash a. Caused by irritation of the skin from being in contact with stool and urine b. Prevented by frequent diaper changes 4. Spitting Up/Vomiting a. Common occurrence for young infants i. Only an issue when infants are not gaining weight, showing signs of illness, etc. 5. Teething a. As teeth break through children become fussy and irritable; lose their appetite; or drool more than usual 6. Urination  a. Infants urinate as often as every 1 to 3 hours or as infrequently as every 4 to 6 hours 7. Jaundice a. Causing infant's skin, eyes, and mouth to turn yellowish color due to buildup of bilirubin a substance that is produced in the body during break down of old red blood cells and formation of new. Typically liver removes billirubin however in infancy the liver is not yet working in its full power Cognitive Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood Chapter 5 Cognitive Infancy Recorder Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Children as Constructivists ○ They actively construct their knowledge through experiences ○ Children are intrinsically motivated to learn Stages of Cognitive Development ○ Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years): Understanding the world through senses and actions Substage 1 (Simple Reflexes, Birth-1 months) Modifying reflexes based on experience Substage 2 (Primary Circular Reactions, 1-4 months) Organizing and integrating reflexes Substage 3 (Secondary Circular Reactions, 4-8 months) Development of object permanence  Substage 4 (Coordination of Circular Reactions, 8-12 months) Intentional behavior; children pass the A-Not-B error Substage 5 (Tertiary Circular Reactions, 12-18 months) Active exploration and experimentation with objects Substage 6 (Internalization of Schemes, 18-24 months) Enduring mental representations, including deferred imitation Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theories of Cognitive Development Cognitive development occurs through social interactions with parents, siblings, teachers, and playmates Children are both learners and teachers, and their cognition is influenced by cultural artifacts and language Language Development Vocalizations ○ Begin around 2 months with vowel sounds Babbling ○ Starts at 6 months with consonant-vowel sounds Understanding (Semantic Development) ○ By 4-6 months, infants can recognize familiar words like mommy or daddy Comprehension vs. Production ○ Comprehension Vocabulary: At 10 months, infants understand 11-154 words. ○ Productive Vocabulary: First words are spoken between 10-25 months. ○ Generally, comprehension precedes production. Word Learning: First Words: Around 12 months. Naming Boom: Rapid increase in vocabulary around 18 months. Word Learning Errors: ○ Underextensions: Using a word too narrowly (e.g., "duck" only for a toy duck). ○ Overextensions: Using a word too broadly (e.g., calling all round objects "ball"). Telegraphic Speech (1.5-2.5 years): Two-word combinations like "Daddy sit" or "Baby play." Theories of Language Development 1. Nativism (Chomsky): Language is innate; children are born with a Language Acquisition Device and Universal Grammar. 2. Social Pragmatics: Language development is a social skill learned through communication with others. 3. Environmental Influences on Language: Culture, socioeconomic status, birth order, gender, and exposure to multiple languages affect language development. Learning and Memory Theories 1. Conditioning: ○ Classical Conditioning: Learning through association (e.g., Pavlov’s dogs). ○ Operant Conditioning: Learning through consequences (reinforcement and punishment). 2. Social Learning Theory:  ○ Children learn behaviors by observing and imitating others, without needing direct rewards or punishments. Memory And Attention Memory Long-term memory ○ Is the final, semi-permanent stage of memory ○ Can be broken down to 2 categories Explicit Memory ( declarative memory) Memory of facts, concepts, and events that require conscious recall of the information In other words, the individual must actively thing about retrieving the information Implicit Memory (unconscious) Involves procedures for completing actions Episodic Memory ○ Used for contextualized memories ○ Memories of specific moments or episodes of ones life Short-Term Memory Storage Ability to hold information for a short duration of time Long-Term Memory Storage Ability to hold semantic information for a prolonged period of time Items in short-term memory move to long-term memory through rehearsal, processing, and use Social and Emotional Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood Chapter 6 Social Infancy pt1 Attachment A close emotional relationship between 2 persons, characterized by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximity. It is enduring across space and time Harry Harlow Experimental work with monkeys who were deprived of all early social interactions strongly supported the view that healthy social and emotional development is rooted in children's early social interactions with adults Bowlby’s Ethological Theory of Attachment An infant's emotional tie to the caregiver is an evolved response that promotes survival Bowlby’s Secure Base A secure base is Bowlby's term for attachment figure’s presence that provides an infant or toddler with a sense of security that makes it possible for the infant to explore the environment Characteristic Development of Attachment Behavior 1. Asocial Phase (0-6 wks): a. no particular preference for social stimuli 2. Indiscriminate Attachments (6 wks - 6 mos): a. enjoy all people 3. Specific Attachment (7-9 mos): a. only wants one person. Wary of strangers 4. Multiple attachments (soon after specific attachment phase): a. attach to multiple familiar people, e.g., father, grandparents, siblings Mary Ainsworth Mary Ainsworth, Bowlby’s student, extended and tested his ideas by creating the strange situation Attachment Classification Secure: ○ Before separation Uses CG as secure base. Explores the environment while social referencing with CG and returning to CG when feeling unsure. ○ During separation Highly upset ○ Upon reunion Warmly greets CG upon reunion & is soothed by CG ○ 65% North American children Anxious/Ambivalent (resistant):  ○ Before separation: Tendency to be physically close to CG and does not explore environment ○ During separation Highly upset ○ Upon reunion Tendency for child to remain near CG (not explore) yet resists contact from CG (often hits and pushed CG) upon reunion, not soothed by CG ○ 10% North American children ○ This would be considered an insecure bond Anxious / Avoidants: ○ Before seperation: No clear preference or tendency for child to play with CG ○ During separation Little to no protest or upset when CG leaves. No problem with strangers presence ○ Upon reunion Child largely ignores CG when he/she returns ○ Can be social with other adults ○ 20% North American children ○ This would be considered an insecure bond Disorganized ○ Before separation Goes back and forth between clinging to caregiver and rejecting caregiver  ○ During separation May cry and visibly upset ○ Upon reunion May avoid the mother when she returns, or may approach and then freeze or fall to the floor ○ 5-10% North American children ○ This would be considered an insecure bond ○ Inconsistent way of coping with the stress of the strange situation ○ Highly represented in abused populations Internal Working Model The attachment relationship informs the childs mental representation of ○ The self ○ Others (people and relationships) These representations influence the child ○ Feelings about their own worth ○ Interactions with others Erikson: Trust vs. Mistrust Birth to age 1 Totally dependent on others Caregiver meets needs: child develops trust Caregivers does not meet needs: child develops mistrust Basic strength: hope ○ Believer our desires will be satisfied  ○ Feeling of confidence Temperament Difference in ○ Reactivity - quickness and intensity of emotional arousal How quickly you react to things How Big or small reactions ○ Self-regulation - strategies that modify that reactivity Now that the reaction is over, how do you modify it and bring it down Personality An individual’s consistent pattern of feeling, thinking, and behaving. Temperament +developing self-condept+motivations to achieve or to socialize + their values and goals + coping styles + sense of responsibility + conscientiousness + so much more = personality Cultural Influences Nature of culture ○ Culture refers to the patterns of ideas, attitudes, values, lifestyle habits, and traditions shared by a group of people and passed on to future generations Infant Emotion Development Earliest emotional life consists mostly of 2 global arousal states: ○ Attraction to pleasant stimulation ○ Withdrawal from unpleasant stimulation Development of Happiness Initially smiles are reflexive  6-10 weeks: first social smiles 3-4 months: laughter Infants delight at their own motor accomplishments Smiles become increasingly social through the first year Development of Anger & Sadness Initially respond to unpleasant experiences with general distress (reflexive crying) 4-6 months: angry expressions increase in frequency and intensity Sources of anger & sadness: ○ Pain, removal of an object, separations, disruption of caregiver communication The Development of Fear Like anger, emerges in mid-first year and continues to increase through the second year Most common source: stranger anxiety Self-Conscious Emotions Shame, embarrassment, envy, doubt and pride Requires a sense of self, emerging around 18-24 months Understanding others’ emotions Still face experiments ○ Distress of baby when mother stops showing emotions Social referencing Social Referencing Tendency to look at social partners for guidance about how to respond to unfamiliar or threatening events Self-Awareness  Self-recognition appears toward the middle to end of the second year of life