PSY 333 Exam 4 Study Guide PDF

PSY 333 Exam 4 Study Guide Chapter 10 Brain Development The brain reaches adult size about age 7 Frontal lobes become more developed ages 10-12 ○ Resulting in improvements in logic, planning, and memory ○ Prefrontal cortex maturation = increased attention span...

PSY 333 Exam 4 Study Guide Chapter 10 Brain Development The brain reaches adult size about age 7 Frontal lobes become more developed ages 10-12 ○ Resulting in improvements in logic, planning, and memory ○ Prefrontal cortex maturation = increased attention span ○ The school-aged child is better able to plan and coordinate activity using both the left and right hemispheres of the brain, which control the development of emotions, physical abilities, and intellectual capabilities Increased myelination = improved reaction time Myelination Fatty insulation grows around the axons (speeds up messages) The more myelination the “faster” the brain can function Hippocampus shows increases in myelination resulting in improvement in memory (ages 6-12) Foot intolerance Research shows that three million children under age 18 are allergic to at least one type of food. Food allergies come from foods that include peanuts, milk, eggs, soy, wheat, and shellfish An allergy occurs when a protein in food triggers an immune response, which results in the release of antibodies, histamine, and other defenders that attack foreign bodies.  Possible symptoms include itchy skin, hives, abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, and nausea Children can outgrow a food allergy, especially allergies to wheat, milk, eggs, or soy Anaphylaxis is a life-threatening reaction that results in difficulty breathing, swelling in the mouth and throat, decreased blood pressure, shock, or even death Some children experience a food intolerance, which does not involve an immune response food intolerance is marked by unpleasant symptoms that occur after consuming certain foods. Children who suffer from this condition experience an adverse reaction to the lactose in milk products. It is a result of the small intestine’s inability to produce enough of the enzyme lactase Symptoms of lactose intolerance usually affect the gastro-intestinal tract and can include bloating, abdominal pain, gas, nausea, and diarrhea Best managed by making dietary changes and avoiding any foods triggering the reaction Exercise, Physical Fitness, and Sports Team Sports Organized sports promise to help children build social skills, improve athletically, and learn a sense of competition. Pros Regular physical activity Higher levels of satisfaction with family and overall quality of life in children Better academic performance Greater social competence, self-esteem  Parents and coaches must emphasize: ○ Effort, improvement, participation, teamwork ○ NOT competition Diabetes in Childhood Type 1 ○ Most often diagnosed in middle childhood (6-12) ○ Doenst produce insulin Type 2 ○ More often diagnosed in adults ○ Produced insulin but doesn't use it Childhood Mental Health Disorders Social and Emotional Disorders Phobias Anxiety Post-Traumatic Stress Syndrome - PTSD Depression Phobias An extreme or irrational fear of or aversion to something An immediate anxiety response, which may take the form of situational bound or situational predisposed panic attack Effects of anxiety ○ Crying, throwing tantrums, experiencing freezing, or clinging to the parent that they have the most connection with. Anxiety Although fears and worries are typical in children, persistent or extreme forms of fear and sadness feelings could be due to anxiety or depression. Because the symptoms primarily involve thoughts and feelings, they are called internalizing disorders. ○ When a child doesn't does not outgrow fears and worries that are typical in young children, or when fears and worries interfere with the child's life, they may be diagnosed with anxiety disorder Examples of different types of anxiety disorders ○ Being very afraid when away from parents (separation anxiety) ○ Having extreme fear about a specific thing or situation, such as dogs, insects, or going to the doctor (phobias) ○ Being very afraid of school and other places where there are people (social anxiety) ○ Being very worried about the future and about bad things happening (general anxiety) ○ Having repeated episodes of sudden, unexpected, intense fear that come with symptoms like heart pounding, having trouble breathing, or feeling dizzy, shaky, or sweaty (panic disorder) Post-Traumatic Stress Syndrome (PTSD) Exposure to traumatic events can have major developmental influences on children n children’s reactions to trauma are often highly influenced by how their parents and caregivers react. For older children, warning signs of problematic adjustment include  ○ repetitious play reenacting a part of the disaster; preoccupation with danger or expressed concerns about safety; sleep disturbances and irritability; anger outbursts or aggressiveness; excessive worry about family or friends; school avoidance, particularly involving somatic complaints; behaviors characteristic of younger children; and changes in personality, withdrawal, and loss of interest in activities. Depression When children feel persistent sadness and hopelessness, they may be diagnosed with depression. Symptoms Children who are depressed may complain of feeling sick, refuse to go to school, cling to a parent or caregiver, feel unloved, hopelessness about the future, or worry excessively that a parent may die Older children and teens may sulk, get into trouble at school, be negative or grouchy, are irritable, indecisive, have trouble concentrating, or feel misunderstood Treatment Medication Psychotherapy Combined treatment Developmental Disorders Attention Deficit Disorder The exact causes are unknown  ○ Some events may include maternal alcohol and tobacco, or even lack of iron have been implicated Symptoms Inattention Hyperactivity and impulsivity Treatment Methylphenidate (Ritalin) D-amphetamine And other amphetamines Chapter 12 Erikson’s Industry vs Inferiority Ages 6-11 Child develops cognitive abilities to do more and better things (school work, play); to be industrious Parents/ teachers do not support childs efforts: child develops feelings of inferiority and inadequacy Basic strength: competence ○ Exertion of skill and intelligence in pursuing and completing tasks Industry ○ Developing a sense of competence at useful skill and tasks ○ School provides many opportunities Inferiority ○ Pessimism and lack of confidence in own ability to do things well  ○ Negative responses from family teachers, and peers can contribute to negative feelings Self-efficacy, motivation, and learned helplessness Self-efficacy is the belief that you are capable of something The higher the self-efficacy the more motivated you are to attempt a task, problem, or goal The lower self-efficacy the more likely you are to develop learned helplessness ○ Learned helplessness is a sense of resignation when one beliefs they cannot control a situation Too much/ too little self-efficacy? Too much self-efficacy Perceived ability is greater than actual ability ○ You think you can do everything and when you cant it might be disappointing Too little self-efficacy Perceived ability is less than actual ability ○ You think you cant do anything, and you wont try it out Research suggests Perceived ability is slightly higher than actual ability = best outcomes Family stress model Describes how financial difficulties are associated with parents’ depressed moods, which in turn lead to marital problem and poor parenting that contributes to poorer child adjustment Economic pressure affects both parents first ○ Then interparental conflict happens  ○ Followed by parent-child problems ○ Ending in child problems One-child families 20% of American families have 1 child Only children can be advantages ○ Higher in self-esteem and motivation ○ Do better in school ○ Attain higher levels of education that children with siblings ○ Closer relationships with parents Can be less accepted in their peer groups A great deal of research on one-child families comes from china (one-child family policy) Adoptive families Fewer healthy babies available in U.S. ○ Increase in adopting from other countries ○ Increase in adopting children with developmental problems Adopted children and adolescents have more learning, emotional difficulties ○ Could be due to the child environment pre-adoption (prenatal or postnatal) ○ Or due to less family harmony because the child is less like their adoptive parents Howeverm most fare well in the long run ○ Need warm, supportive parenting ○ Need knowledge of heritage Same sex parents Growing in numbers Children similar in: ○ Mental health ○ Peer relations ○ Sexual orientation May develop more empathy and tolerance Divorce Each year, approximately 1 million children experience the divorce of their parents Children of divorce are at greater risk for short - and long-term psychological, behavior, academic, and relationship problems than those who live with both biological parents Nonetheless, most children who parents divorce do not suffer significant, enduring problems as a consequence Theories of Divorce 1. Absence theory a. Children suffer from divorce because they now live with one, rather than two parents 2. Economic Disadvantage theory a. The lowered well-being of children of divorce is dfue to the economic hardships post-divorce 3. Conflict theory a. The adversity children experience in divorce is the household hostility, which exst prior to and during the divorce process  i. Remember, divorce is not a single event ii. Received the most corroboration iii. Predicts that things will get better once parents are separated Child characteristics within a divorce Age ○ Younger children have more robust, visible displays of distress Difficulty understanding; guilt ○ Older children/teens; more understanding of situation, but risk of academic failure & poor relationship with parents Family withdrawal; acting out Temperament ○ Difficult children have more difficulty ○ Results in more coercive parenting Goodness of fit issue Difficult child + impatient caregiver = negative interactions Factors affecting the impact of divorce Short-term consequences 1. Grief over losses suffered a. The child will grieve the loss of the parent they no longer see as frequently. The child may also grieve about other family members that are no longer available. 2. Reduced standard of living a. There may be less happiness and relaxation in the home due to a change in the amount of money coming into the household  3. Adjusting to transitions a. Children may also have to adjust to other changes accompanying a divorce. Long-term consequences 1. Economic/Occupational Status a. One of the most commonly cited long-term effects of divorce is that children of divorce may have lower levels of education or occupational status. This may be a consequence of lower income and resources for funding education rather than to divorce per se 2. Improved relationship with custodial parent a. Most children of divorce lead happy, well-adjusted lives and develop stronger, positive relationships with their custodial parent b. Others have also found that relationships between mothers and children become closer and stronger c. greater equality and less rigid parenting is beneficial after divorce 3. Greater emotional independence in sons a. sons who are raised by mothers only develop an emotional sensitivity to others that is beneficial in relationships. 4. Feeling more anxious in their own love relationships a. Children of divorce may feel more anxious about their own relationships as adults. This may reflect a fear of divorce if things go wrong, or it may be a result of setting higher expectations for their own relationships. 5. Adjustment of custodial parent  a. the primary factor influencing the way that children adjust to divorce is the way the custodial parent adjusts to the divorce. If that parent is adjusting well, the children will benefit. This may explain a good deal of the variation we find in children of divorce Peer Relationships (sociometric assessment) Common Sociometric Categories Popular ○ Children who receive many positive nominations and few negative nominations Rejected ○ Children who receive many negative nominations and few positive nominations Neglected ○ Children are low in social impact (i.e., they receive few positive or negative nominations). These children are not especially liked or disliked by peers; they simply go unnoticed Controversial ○ Children who receive many positive and many negative nominations. They are noticed by peers and are liked by a quite few children and disliked by quite a few others Popular Peer Status More so “perceived popularity” A category of sociometric status that refers to children or adolescents who are viewed positively by many peers and are viewed negatively by few peers These individuals  ○ Tend to be skilled at initiating interactions with peers and at maintaining positive relationships ○ Tend to be cooperative, friendly, sociable, and sensitive to others ○ Are not prone to intense negative emotions and regulate themselves well ○ Tend to be less aggressive than average children Rejected Peer Status A category of sociometric status that refers to children or adolescents who are liked by few peers and disliked by many peers A majority of rejected children tend to fall into two categories ○ Aggressive-Rejected ○ Withdrawn-Rejected Aggressive-Rejected Are especially prone to hostile and threatening behavior, physical aggression, disruptive behavior, and delinquency Aggressive behavior often underlies rejection by peers ○ However, not all aggressive peers are rejected; Some develop a network of aggressive friends Withdrawn-Rejected Socially withdrawn, wary, and often timid Not all socially withdrawn children are rejected or socially excluded ○ Withdrawn behavior + negative actions or emotions = withdrawn rejected Neglected Peer Status  A category of sociometric status that refers to children or adolescents who are infrequently mentioned as liked or disliked display relatively few behaviors that differ greatly from those of many other children Appear to be neglected primarily because they are not notice Controversial Peer Status A category of sociometric status that refers to children or adolescents who are liked by quite a few peers and are disliked by quite a few others ○ Tend to have characteristics of both popular and rejected children ○ Some peers view such children as arrogant and snobbish Bullying and Victims unwanted, aggressive behavior among school aged children that involves a real or perceived power imbalance. ○ the aggressive behavior happens more than once or has the potential to be repeated Verbal Bullying ○ saying or writing mean things, teasing, name-calling, taunting, threatening, or making inappropriate sexual comments Social Bullying /Relational Bullying ○ spreading rumors, purposefully excluding someone from a group, or embarrassing someone on purpose Physical Bullying ○ Hurting a person’s body or possessions  Cyber Bullying ○ sending mean text messages or emails, creating fake profiles, and posting embarrassing pictures, videos or rumors on social networking sites ○ Children who experience cyberbullying have a harder time getting away from the behavior because it can occur any time of day and without being in the presence of others Victims of Bullying students are at an increased risk for being bullied, including lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgendered (LGBT) youth, those with disabilities, and those who are socially isolated ○ Additionally, those who are perceived as different, weak, less popular, overweight, or having low self-esteem, have a higher likelihood of being bullied Chapter 11 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood Concrete Operational Thought 6-12 years of age Marked by the development of organized and rational thinking can engage in logical or operational thought, but can only apply to physical objects (not abstract) Serration The ability to order and arrange things based on one dimension, such as size, weight, or volume Classifications Arrange objectg based on class and subclass Identity Understanding that objects have qualities that do not change even if the object is altered in some way Transitivity Understand how objects are related to one another Conservation Understand that changing one quality does not change the overall amount. The hallmark of the concrete operational stage is that children pass the conservation task ○ Recognize that the amount is conserved even if the appearance changes on one dimension Reversibility Things that have been altered can be returned to their original state To master conservation, children understand that the matter can be put back to its original state ○ For example, the liquid that was poured from A to C and can be put back in A Decentration Perceive the different aspects of situation or problem To master conservation, children must account for all dimensions of size ○ For example the liquid is “taller” but is also “wider” Theories of intelligence Intelligence Is the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations General Intelligence ( also known g) Charles Spearman (1869-1945) performed a factor analysis of different skills and found that people who did well in one are also did well in another. Spearman speculated that these people had a high “g” (general intelligence) Triarchic Theory of Intelligence Robert Sternberg (1949) proposed that “success” in life is related to three types of ability 1. Analytical (componential) a. Sometimes described as academic: includes the ability to solve problems of logic, verbal comprehension, vocabulary, and spatial abilities 2. Creative (experiential) a. The ability to apply newly found skills to novel situations 3. Practical (contextual) a. The ability to use common sense and to know what is called for in a situation Howard Gardner’s Eight Intelligences Naturalist ○ The ability to recognize, identify, and understand animals, plants, and other living things Linguistic ○ The ability to speak and write well  Logical-Mathematical ○ The ability to use logic and mathematical skills to solve problems Musical ○ The ability to perform and enjoy music Spatial ○ The ability to perform and enjoy music Bodily-kinesthetic ○ The ability to move the body in sport, dance, or other physical activities Intrapersonal ○ The ability to have insights into the self Interpersonal ○ The ability to understand and interact effectively with others Existential ○ The ability to understand and have concern from life’s larger questions, the meaning of life, and other spiritual matters Carol Dweck: fixed vs. growth mindset People can be placed on a continuum based on their implicit theories of intelligence Fixed mindset: The belief that intelligence is biologically set and unchanging Growth mindset: Belief that intelligence is based on hard work and can be improved Dweck has developed interventions to encourage a growth mindset in students Information Processing: Learning, Memory, and Problem Solving Working Memory Expands during middle and late childhood Improved due to increased processing speed and the ability to inhibit irrelevant information ○ Brain changes supporting this development = increased myelination and synaptic pruning Memory strategy (use increases) Children use Rehearsal to remember new information. They will repeat information that they need to remember repeatedly Children learn o use mnemonics Attention Improved because children can attend to what is necessary by inhibiting irrelevant information ○ They can switch between tasks The Dimensional change card sort task asks kids to sort cards based on color and then switch to sorting based on shape. Young children cannot switch between the rules, but children in middle childhood can. Young children cannot inhibit the color information/rules that they learned in order to focus on shape. They continue to sort based on color even when the rule has changed to shape  Children in middle childhood can inhibit the first set of rules to focus on the second set of rules. They can switch their attention and sort based on shape when that is the rule Bilingualism When is the best time to learn a second language? Majority of bilingual students (75%) are Hispanic Simultaneous bilingualism Learning two languages at the same time from birth Phonology ○ Children retain the ability to hear phonological contrasts for both languages Lexicon ○ Bilingual children appear to violate the Mutual Exclusivity Assumption, because they accept two words from the same thing if they believe them to be from different languages ○ Bilingual children appear to have smaller vocabularies (than their monolingual peers) in each language but make up for it with both of their languages combined Grammar ○ Bilingual children lag behind monolingual children in grammatical development Sequential Bilingualism Learning a second language after you are proficient in the first Children’s acquisition may take years and bve more difficult than first language acquisition Language acquisition may include making many errors  ○ The mistakes often resemble the first language Individual factors that affect second language learning ○ Phonological memory ○ Personality ○ Motivation ○ Age Learning to Read Phonics-based approach (bottom-up process) ○ Emphasizes the individual components of reading often independent of meaningful context Sounding out words Memorizing small, frequent words: the, in, and Whole-language approach (Top-down process) ○ Teaches visual retrieval and focuses on goals, backgrounds, and expectations to determine what is selected from text ○