US Civilization Exam Preparations PDF - November 5th

Preparations for US civilization exam scheduled Wednesday November 5th Transcribed and redacted from T.M. Adnibi’s personal handwritten annotations US CivilizationCM BRENGARD, Philippe 1. The Jazz Age 1919-1928c. (Cf. Tales of The Jazz Age, S. Fitzgerald) Era characterized by a mass desire...

Preparations for US civilization exam scheduled Wednesday November 5th Transcribed and redacted from T.M. Adnibi’s personal handwritten annotations US CivilizationCM BRENGARD, Philippe 1. The Jazz Age 1919-1928c. (Cf. Tales of The Jazz Age, S. Fitzgerald) Era characterized by a mass desire to break away and enjoy life. To abandon hardship of the war and move onto a more joyful and worry-free future. - Birth of Jazz Music - Booming film industry - Cultural turning point - Businesses boomed, increased demand, markets expanded - Unemployment diminished greatly - Mass industrial production - Wave of immigrants increases (Eastern and Southern EU for instance) Stereotype of the 20s flapper, incessant partying, illegal drinking under prohibition However : - KKK reemergence - Rural fundamentalism/Protestantism - Quota laws enacted to reduce tie of immigrants arriving in US 1.1) Prosperity and Production of Popular Entertainment Rapidly evolving and growing motion picture industry First major movie stars and stage names Cinemas extremely frequented Optimism and consumerism led to people buying on credit and the mass production of consumer goods which were more and more in demand “The Big Five” : Warner Bros, RKO, MetroGoldwyMeyer, 20th Century, Paramount Pictures Southern California became home to the booming film industry because of its more clement weather unlike up in New York where things had begun in 1890s with Edison’s kinetoscope. 1920 : Warren G. Harding elected president of the US in landslide victory 1923 : Teapot Dome Scandal rocks his presidency 1924 : Quota laws enacted cf National Origins Act 1925 : John Scopes is arrested in TN for teaching theory of evolution in classrooms 1927 : Charles Lindbergh flies solo across the Atlantic Ocean 1928 : Herbert Hoover is elected president of the US 1.2) Automobiles and Airplanes : Americans on the move Mobility more accessible to a greater nb of Americans. Henry Ford’s Model T major symbol of automobile accessibility and freedom Assembly lines more commonly found in factories Advances in Aviation Autos more mass-produced to meet demand By 1929 there were 23 million cars in the US Assembly lines allowed for a reduction in production costs and for greater effectiveness Emphasis on efficiency over craftsmanship Ford though disliked unions and workers’ representation. His employees did highly repetitive tasks and a high turnover rate was observed. The wages were attractive though, and Ford introduced the standardized workday & enforced equal pay for his Black as well as White workers. Transition from coal-based economy to a petroleum based one. Ford managed to reshape nation’s mode of industrialism by paying his workers enough for them to afford their own products. Steel, oil, glass and rubber processing industries also boomed. Oil industry in TX, CA, OK expanded and grew. Greater need for public roadways. There were new state expenditure as well as local ones. Motels first introduced to cater to motorists Mass transit vs auto suburbs The 1920s were a crucial decade in the history of aviation 1927 Lindbergh flew across Atlantic with his monoplane ‘Spirit of Saint Louis’. Became an international hero Lindbergh’s exploit led to greater hope and beginnings of commercial aviation : 1930s partnerships between Boeing and Ford. Household appliances arrived in domestic life. Greater access and use of electricity. Said appliances promised greater leisure time: they did not. Women workload increased somewhat. Beginnings of mass consumerism and processed foods, appliances etc. 1.3) The Power of Radio & the World of Sports Radio stations popped up everywhere in the nation Newscasts, social stories, political speeches Advertised entertainment Reached wide audiences around nation Radio technology evolved since WWI Audiences across the country were more easily and instantly reached Nationalization process by smoothening out differences among regions, coast to coast broadcasts Popularization of sports and athletes’ names e.g. 1926 Getrude Ederle, Helen Wills 1.4) Transformation & Backlash New era for leisure and generalized satisfaction among Americans however the upheaval of urban society brought with it its problems. Gap between rural Americans and urban Americans widened. Nativist sentiment grew. End of the 1800s massive immigration from Europe and elsewhere caused anxiety and greatening fears of already present Americans. (new cultures, languages, customs, faiths etc.) Old Stock Americans still hostile and rejecting of newer generations of Americans from elsewhere. ‘foreign threat’, assassinations, Communists, 1917 Russian Revolution etc. Sacco-Vanzetti case divided Americans Verdict triggered unrest and tensions between communities Protests took place all over the world The Great Colorado Strike of 1927 took place too bc people were outraged Felix Frankfurter stated the DA and trial judge exploited immigrants’ poor language skills, unpopular opinions and lack of knowledge of the system to turn them into scapegoats and convict them easier. To maintain US homogeneity : - Emergency Immigration Act of 1921 - Quota systems introduced : only 3% of population from given country would be allowed in US based off of 1910 census - National Origins Act of 1924 : 2% of a nation’s population allowed in based off of 1890 census. General effort to reduced nb of incoming immigrants and anti-immigration sentiment present. There was minimal opposition in Congress toward these bills. KKK and Workers’ Unions supported such legislation for their own reasons. Coolidge : “America must be kept American” 1.5) The KKK Cf. 1915, The Birth of a Nation film KKK concerned with threat within borders and foreign arrivals. Scared for WASPs The Clansman, 1915 Thomas Dixon Well liked by white readers, though racist, inaccurate, exaggerated, heavily prejudiced, historical revisionism. New Klan publicly violent, antisemitic, white supremacist, mainstream support, Protestantism. Second KKK in 1924 : no public violence BUT intimidation tactics, harassment, boasted 6 million members. Several states opposed though through anti-mask legislation. NAACP = sought to ban Birth of a Nation. Lobbied Congress and educated on lynchings. Great Depression ultimately put an end to KKK popularity and activity because more pressing issues. KKK became relevant again, active again in the 1960s. 1.6) Faith, Fundamentalism & Science Post-war urbanization issues and anti-immigration + KKK fear Cities presented positives and opportunities for prosperity as well as a heap of trouble between and within communities. Rural disconnect increases : perception of rapid social upheaval Cities seen as sinful places Rural Americans seen as hayseeds and backwater rednecks by urbanites ‘Butler’ Act in TN made it illegal to teach theory of evolution in schools. As opposed to creationism ideology rooted in Christian faith. John Scopes arrested and convicted, fined 100 dollars ACLU condemned the Butler Act as an infringement on freedom of speech Scopes Monkey Trial attracted extensive media coverage. Agnostic Clarence Darrow was the defense attorney and squared off against fundamentalist prosecutor William Bryan. Billy Sunday supported prohibition and old time fundamentalism Anne Semple McPherson was a Canadian living in LA. Practiced faith healing performances, preached fundamentalist truths from Bible yet led scandalous love life. 2. A New Generation 2.1) A New Morality Disillusioned youth post WWI era, more rebellious and wild. Known morals reconsidered. Girls = flappers Boys = sheiks Changing in the norms, looser more freed sexuality. More permissive habits. Planned Parenthood became a thing with Margaret Sander. Automobiles provided for autonomy in mobility and privacy for enamored youths Contraception more widely used Rise in number of unmarried couples Hollywood films played a part in making this new lifestyle popular among youth. Sex symbols and sex appeal became a thing. Jazz became very popular music genre especially among young white urbanites. 2.2) The New Woman 19th Amendment allowed women to have political leverage and involvement. Breaking away from Victorian norms and gender traditions Greater female liberation through changing social norms and world (fashion expression, parties, dancing, women’s clubs and forays into college and more professional possibilities) Flappers illustrated the changing woman 1921: Welfare and Hygiene of Maternity and Infancy Act allowed for 1,25 million dollars to fund well-baby clinics and educational programs to educate mothers : reduced infant mortality rate. 1923 : Equal Rights Act enacted, making sex discrimination unlawful on US soil. Progressive movement however was beginning to lose steam. Era of stagnation for women’s rights after 19th Amndt was ratified More women working Discrimination through wages earned Rationale was that women need not work because husbands already did that. Only single or unwed women were seen as socially allowed to work 2.3) The Harlem Renaissance & “The New Negro” The Great migration of African Americans continued in the 1920s. Fleeing Jim Crow laws. North however could prove disappointing, de facto discrimination and segregation North for blacks represented the vote and the possibility for education. However, housing problems existed in communities already bursting at the seams with people. The Harlem ward in NYC was a center for black art and afro centric literature, music, politics and a gathering spot for many African Americans communities. Gamut = return to native Africa vs integration and inclusion in America The Harlem Renaissance involved a strong rediscovery for black Americans of cultural expression in reaction to wartime oppression. - Rejection of emulating white American culture - Black pride was strongly encouraged - African cultures Cf Claude McKay ‘If We Must Die’ poem Cf Langston Hughes Cf Zora Neale Hurston The New Negro = political ideology revolving around the celebration of African Americans’ distinct national identity W.D.B. Du Bois was a major black author and scholar. First black man to earn a Ph.D. from Harvard University. Encouraged black pride. Rejected white supremacy. Encouraged blacks to work together for their own interests. Promoted the elevation of black literature. Marcus Garvey on the other hand promoted the ‘Back to Africa’ movement. He was a Jamaican immigrant totally disillusioned with America. Founded the United Negro Improvement Association catering to thousands of workers. Promoted negritude = reversal of racial hierarchy and prizing blackness. 2.4) Prohibition 18th Amendment passed in 1919 banning the manufacture, sale and transportation of intoxicating liquor Austere social reform. Temperance movement and Anti Saloon League triumph Laws were difficult to enforce however. Illegal alcohol was smuggled in from Canada and the Caribbeans. Moonshine brewed at night by rural Americans Increase in crime that sought to subvert anti liquor legislation, eroding respect for law and order Deep political divisions revealed. Democrats split between wets in the North and the dry in the South “Scarface” Al Capone : extensive bootlegging and criminal activity through Chicago Mafia. Many police were on his payroll: prostitution, gambling, loansharking, bootlegging etc. 2.5) The Lost Generation Growing sense of disillusionment post WW1, fear of fundamentalism and general pessimistic attitude and critique of the system. Expression of despair, culture of US expats leaving and abhorring the society they left. Feelings of hopelessness and alienation from society. e.g. Fitzgerald, Hemingway, Wharton, Stein The Old Man and The Sea, Hemingway Sinclair Lewis Babitt (1922) “sheep following the herd” as a way to characterize Americans’ mentality. 2.6) Republican Ascendancy : Politics in 1920s 1920 election : weakening of the Democratic party. Waving Red Scare. Population is growing tired of reforms. 1920s= return to pro-business movement Warren G. Harding was an Ohioan senator, a republican who promoted restauration and normalcy for Americans. He was a politician the GOP felt like they could control well. Dems candidate was NY Senator William Gibbs McAdoo. Harding’s speeches were described by commentators, journalists and detractors as bland and needlessly elaborate, conveying no real message. Harding was all about poker, golf, alcohol Critics said he is indolent and incompetent but Harding was actually intelligent and politically astute. His running mate was Calvin Coolidge, governor of Massachusetts Harding wins in 1920 in a landslide victory with 61% of the popular vote vs Governor James Cox of Ohio Harding’s cabinet held a pro-business agenda Herbert Hoover was a millionaire, mechanical engineer and miner. Appointed Secretary of Commerce Was very effective administrator and served well in the Food and Fuel Administration during WW1, wanted to promote further partnerships between government and businesses. Andrew Mellon was Secretary of the Treasury He was a pro-business multimillionaire banker and investor in uranium mining. Believed the US government should work for and with the businesses, should adopt business-friendly principles - Tax rate cuts - 1st formal budgeting process - Require President to submit annual budget to Congress to reduce US deficit + lingering WW1 debt In Europe though recovery was very difficult = US exports diminished Emergency Tariff of 1921 : an effort to protect US agriculture and other businesses threatened by lower-priced imports 2.7) Foreign Policy Focus on maintaining peace, reduce armament worldwide and foster international cooperation US Senate opposed ratification of Treaty of Versailles Harding though ensured formal peace with defeated Austrian Empire and Germany Conference held in DC with heads of state to agree on reducing threat of future conflict Although Harding’s intentions were good, efforts wavered in later years as nations began focusing on future war again because of mounting tensions. Harding was personally honest, but his administration stank : ridden with scandals which ensured a bad legacy. Harding’s bad entourage (unscrupulous administrators and counsellors) overshadowed his personal honesty. 1920 – 1923 Secretary of the Interior Albert B. Fall Teapot Dome Scandal : 250 million dollars’ worth of money laundering from Veterans’ fund. Harding’s tenure in office knew a number of accomplishments but also dark scandals. Warren G. Harding passed away unexpectedly in 1923, and his Vice President Calvin Coolidge took over. Americans mourned Harding’s passing. Coolidge put the scandals to rest, held strong beliefs in Puritan work ethic His first term was about erasing the taint of Harding’s time in office Coolidge believed America’s business was business itself. Was in awe for Mr. Mellon’s fiscal policies. Coolidge believed the wealthy were meritorious of their wealth and that only the rich understood their own interests. He opposed federal intervention. Inactivity and silence: Coolidge’s main traits. He wins in the 1924 election. Election of ‘28 Cultural battle between forces of rebellion and reaction. 1928 was the height of Republican ascendancy. Coolidge refused to run, Herbet Hoover seemed the logical Republican heir. Democrats’ nominee was Governor Alfred E. Smith of NY, an outspoken Irish Catholic big city politician, anti-prohibition. Not very popular though… Hoover won fairly easily thanks to momentum of Republican-brought prosperity. HOOVER : 21 million votes vs SMITH’s 15 million Stock market continued to rise Confidence, optimism remained in the air 3. Great Depression 1929-1934 “I have no fear for our future” – Hoover’s inauguration speech. Dramatic Irony. General belief that 1920s prosperity would continue on. Barely a year after the start of Hoover’s term = shantytowns called Hoovervilles filled US cities, same as Hooverblankets and Hooverflaps. Stock market crash in October 1929 kicked off the Great Depression yet other factors were also clearly at play, natural catastrophes, Dust bowls, starvation on the streets, homelessness etc. Believed by Americans to be a brief downturn, short recession. Within first year Americans suffered greatly despite only 10% having invested in stock market. People desperate for change. The government wasn’t wholly responsible but failure to act worsened dire situation. 3.1) Crash of 1929 Crash caused downward spiral and economy worsened in ways neither Hoover or anyone could restrain. Consumer panic. Crisis year within start of Hoover’s term. Hoover’s spirit was to continue with Coolidge’s prosperity and policies of inactivity. Wanted to overhaul federal regulations to allow economy to evolve unfettered of any control. The less government intervention, the better. Americans would rise and fall on their own merit. Hoover was actually a humanitarian. In 1900 he coordinated relief effort for foreign nationals during the Boxer Rebellion Appointed to the Food and Fuel administration under Woodrow Wilson during WW1 Put in place civil service reform and expanding opportunities for employment. Hoover was also director of Department of Justice Summer 1926 = Federal Farm Board to assist farmers by creating government price supports. Tax class across all income classes. Creation of Federal Bureau of Prisons Creation of Veteran Administration Development of veteran hospitals Reorganized Bureau of Indian Affairs Hoover proposed creation of old age pensions. Seemed like his term would be very successful. 3.2) The Great Crash His plans and promises were cut short. Stock market lost almost 50% of its value by October 29’ Millions of Americans were ruined Crash wasn’t sole cause of Great Depression. Complex connection between crash and depression consequences. 1/3 will loose their savings and employment. The roaring 20s led people to speculate more than reasonably: concerned middle class and wealthy Americans. Government even encouraged such ventures. Federal Reserve eased reserved requirements on largest banks and allowed artificially low interest rates. Money supply in the US went up 60% No risks taken = no gains. Belief in never-ending prosperity and that these practices were safe. Ponzi schemes led novice investors to invest but their funds were diverted to pay off older investors as schemes grew in size. Speculation became the norm. Banks granted credits easily. Cf Florida Land Boom in the 1920s. Real estate agents bought cheap land/lots and sold them at higher prices. Florida perceived as tropical paradise. IRS investigations and negative press curtailed the boom + climate posed problems Summer 1929 was plentiful of signs that things were changing badly. Prices began to fluctuate. Speculation went on though and little was done to slow things or warn people off 18/09 seasoned investors began worrying about initial market downturn London Stock Exchange crashed too. People began foreseeing the end. Early October New York Stock Exchange lost 11% of its value Some foresaw imminent end, and went to drink hard in bars together one last time OCTOBER 29th in 3minutes 3 million shares were sold 2 million dollars changed hands Telephone lines were saturated/ Same for Western Union telegraphic lines Desperate investors murdered themselves. Fights broke out on the floor. Flurry of activity. Bell wasn’t even heard when day opened. Investors wanted to dump all of their shares to save themselves 14 billion dollars lost in one day. 16 million shares traded vs 3 million on average day Banks fearing for their assets began demanding loans to be paid back forthwith Many who did not manage to sell enough saw their life savings disappear All efforts to stem tide were useless. 90% of all banks had previously invested in stock market. Stock market had lost one third of its value between September and November Consequences were absolutely devastating Since Federal Reserve had lowered limit amount of reserve banks had to have, banks had dwindling resources. Millions of penniless customers A few investors managed to sell at the right time and could now buy discarded shares Bankers had even used customers’ deposits to speculate Crash of 1929 highlighted underlying weaknesses in economy. Major turning point. END of an era characterized by blind faith and hubris US exceptionalism. 3 primary reasons : - International context - Poor income distribution - Psychology of public confidence and dynamics After WW1: US allies + defeated nations of Germany & Austria had absolutely disastrous economies. LARGE amounts of money were owed to the US yet still could not be fully reimbursed. 3.3) In the Aftermath of the Crash No market correction this time after crash unlike times in the past when market cycled up and down with periods of growth afterward. Depression ensued quickly. Auto and Construction were the industries most heavily impacted Car production almost stopped. People could not afford anymore. Some cars would not be produced until 1949 like some luxury brands Empire State Building left half-empty for years. No new hotels, no new theaters for 30 years. People could not buy and consume as much, no use to businesses Employers began to lay off workers. GDP went down 25% within a year. 3.4) The New Reality for Americans post-Crash Commoners were in big trouble. Struggled financially. Rushed to their bank and gotten their savings to stash them or even convert them into gold and send them overseas to safety. Cities struggled to collect enough property taxes. Civil workers, teachers and police officers began to be laid off. Ashamed men and family men shunned themselves from public view out of shame, could not provide. Lived on the streets. Breadlines and lines before soup kitchens seen throughout country. These were private initiatives or run by charitable organizations and churches. Family life went into disarray. Birth rate diminished greatly for a decade. People stopped marrying. Had other problems to deal with. The most vulnerable in society paid double the price Women, racial groups, children Parents sent children to beg on the streets, out of shame. Rural Americans did not suffer as much. New survival lifestyle emerged. 200 000 children became vagrant because of family disintegration. Women began looking for jobs more intensely out of desperation. Faced opposition from employers and men lobbying against women “stealing their jobs”. 26 states out of the 50 passed laws restricting female employment. Women who did get employed were relegated to Pink collar jobs : secretary, clerical positions, telephone operators, nurses etc. By 1932: ½ black Americans were unemployed. Substance farming saved many rural Americans by tending to their needs via own farming. Demand increased due to crises. Advancements replaced manual farming for the most part, surplus present because of lack of demand. Farmers were indebted with loans and bank credits. More than 700 000 family farms disappeared in the first half of the 1930s. Farm foreclosures multiplied. Workers could not consume as much anymore. Farmers could not live off of their work. Distinction made between deserving poor and undeserving poor. Stemmed from Puritan rhetoric and work ethic. 15 million Americans were indeed in need of help. Hoover believed relief was not government’s burden but private initiatives’. FDR instituted the Department of Welfare in the 1920s while governor of New York. It was symbolic progress because of how slow the funding was. Only half of families qualified and received 2 dollars/week… The elders were no one’s priority but their adult children’s. Relief came in the form of food and fuel. No medical care offered. No clothing or else. At a local level community groups formed to help each other out. Police departments promised a percentage of their salaries to fund food support. Teachers raised 200 000 dollars each month out of their salaries to help children in need. Efforts though noble were not sufficient. Hoover wanted big businesses to come in help to keep workers employed. Wished for greater solidarity. He spun rugged individualism rhetoric, exhorted Americans to “tighten their belt”. The measures taken were basically too little, too late. He left office with one of the worst approval rates ever of any president. People were dissatisfied with his inaction, his philosophy was unpopular at a time when Americans were desperate for assistance. Hoover had made a fortune in engineering though he came from a very modest family. He believed in rags to riches American success story that was his. He disliked government intervention because he though it killed character. N.Y. Times column about how no one could have done better or more in Hoover’s place. Put in place the P.O.U.R. though insufficient 60 million dollar bill to provide relief for Americans victim of natural catastrophes. Congress only granted 47 million dollars. The fund was not even used for food… Hoover proposed a 300 million dollar budget to finance clothing, food and various other aids. Congress opposed however to the budget. Increasing dissonance between Hoover and Congress. Hoover also refused to cash in his salary as president during this period. He was one of two presidents to ever do so. Emergency Relief & Construction Act of 1932 (proposed by senator Robert Wagner) To fund infrastructure and construction at a state level, federal government was to grant 1,25 billion dollars. Process took a long time however to unlock funds. Hoover started to become very unpopular, his beliefs did not help. Protests took place. Emotional outrage and dissatisfaction more and more expressed. 80% of workers from auto industry left jobless. Hunger marches took place. Episodes of violence too. Detroit protest ends with 4 dead and 60 injured. Funerals attended by 60 000 people. Labor – Management relations deteriorated Farmers from a nb of states like Wisconsin and Iowa joined to form the Farm Holiday Association to demand government help to face the low price drops and allow them to sell on foreign markets. This group pressured other farmers to join forces, used intimidation tactics and violence in the process. 1932 Bonus Army problem. 15 000 veterans marched on DC to demand early payment of their service pension. Encamped in and around the city, in parks and abandoned federal buildings. Senate rejected their demands. Hoover became fed up with their presence by July. Ordered police to clear them out of the area. General McArthur with aids Eisenhower and Patton directed operations. Succeeded. Burned buildings too to force veterans out. 12 week old infant died during clashes. Media and photojournalists reported the action. The public was aware. Hoover’s popularity plummeted. Even his brief optimism disappeared about being reelected in 1932. People needed strong head of state who took initiatives and was charismatic. African Americans 50% of blacks were unemployed by 1932. Paid double the price. Black workers laid off in favor of whites in need of a job. Volatile context. Violence broke out. Lynchings down South. 28 lynchings in 1933 alone. Media reported racial tensions. Scottsboro case 9 black boys arrested for vagrancy and disorderly conduct by police in Alabama after hopping on and off of trains. Two women accused them of rape. All white jury at their trial. Convicted though one of the women recanted her testimony. 8 of them received death sentence. General outrage throughout the country. The Communist Party took on their case and demanded retrial. NAACP also injected themselves into the matter. They were trialed three times in total. Case went up to the Supreme Court. Ruled with the Communist Party and struck down death sentences which were then commuted to lengthy prison terms (despite no evidence confirming a rape had ever taken place). Many infringements of due process procedure and defendants’ rights were pointed out by the Supreme Court ruling. Case brought to light the many flaws and racism lurking within the courts. Also laid groundwork for modern civil rights movement. In 2013 the state of Alabama issued official posthumous pardons.