Practical Research 2 Q2 PDF

PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 12 - Oxygen | SEM 1 Q2 | Ma’am Elain E. Malones SECOND QUARTER REVIEWER compiled by feonah ☆ LESSON 1: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH controlling or manipulating the independent DESIGNS...

PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2 12 - Oxygen | SEM 1 Q2 | Ma’am Elain E. Malones SECOND QUARTER REVIEWER compiled by feonah ☆ LESSON 1: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH controlling or manipulating the independent DESIGNS variable in an experiment. It is assumed that the changes in dependent variables were 1.0 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN caused by the independent variable. There are also two groups of subjects, participants, Research design is defined as the rational and or respondents in quasiexperimental and coherent overall strategy that the researcher uses to experimental research. incorporate all the vital components of the research The treatment group refers to the group study. subjected to treatment or intervention. According to Fraenkel and Wallen (2007, p 15), The group not subject to treatment or the research designs in quantitative research are intervention is called the control group. mostly pre-established. Hence having an appropriate research design in quantitative research, the researcher will have a clearer comprehension of what 2.4 QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL he is trying to analyze and interpret. The term means partly, partially, or almost – 2.0 TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH pronounced as kwahz-eye. This research design aims DESIGN to measure the causal relationship between variables. The effect measured is considered to have occurred 2.1 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH during the conduct of the current study. The partiality of quasi-experimental design comes from assigning When little is known about the research subjects, participants, or respondents into their problem, then it is appropriate to use descriptive groups. The groups are known to be already research design. It is a design that is exploratory in established before the study, such as age, educational nature. The purpose of descriptive research is background, and nationality. Since the assignment of basically to answer questions such as who, what, subjects, participants, or respondents are not where, when, and how much. So, this design is best randomly assigned into an experimental or control used when the main objective of the study is just to groups, the conclusion of results is limited. observe and report a certain phenomenon as it is happening. 2.5 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH 2.2 CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH This research design is based on the scientific method called experiment with a procedure of The main goal of this design is to determine if gathering data under a controlled or manipulated variable increases or decreases as another variable environment. It is also known as true experimental increases or decreases. This design seeks to establish design since it applies treatment and manipulation an association between variables. It does not seek more extensively compared to quasi-experimental cause and effect relationship like descriptive research; design. Random assignment of subjects or it measures variables as it occurs. participants into treatment and control group is done It has two major purposes: increasing the validity of the study. Experimental (a) to clarify the relationship between variables research, therefore, attempts to affect a certain (b) predict the magnitude of the association. variable by directly manipulating the independent However, the extent of the purpose of correlational variable. research depends on the scope and delimitation of the study. LESSON 2: SAMPLING PROCEDURE AND THE SAMPLE 2.3 EX POST FACTO 1.0 POPULATION AND SAMPLE Its objective is to measure a cause from a pre-existing effect. In this design, the researcher has The first step in determining the sample size is no control over the variables in the research study. identifying the population of the topic of interest. The Thus, one cannot conclude that the changes population is the totality of all the objects, elements, measured happen during the actual conduct of the persons, and characteristics under consideration. It is study. understood that this population possesses common characteristics about which the research aims to The last two types of quantitative research designs explore. are identifiable for the existence of treatment or There are two types of population: target intervention applied to the current research study. population and accessible population. The actual Intervention or treatment pertains to population is the target population, for example, all Senior High School Students enrolled in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) in especially if you have large sample size. the Division of Cagayan de Oro City. While the accessible population is the portion of the population in which the researcher has reasonable access, for example all Senior High School enrolled, STEM strand at Marayon Science High School – X. When the whole population is too costly or time-consuming or impractical to consider, then, a For example, your study is for your city, and sample representative is identified. Sampling pertains you want to determine how many households whose to the systematic process of selecting the group to be breadwinner work onsite during COVID pandemic. And analyzed in the research study. The goal is to get you do not have enough information about the information from a group that represents the target population. In that case, you are going to assume that population. Once a good sample is obtained, the a half of the breadwinners in the city are working generalizability and applicability of findings increases. onsite. So, this assumption will give you a maximum The representative subset of the population variability, so, p = 0.5. And you want 95% confidence, refers to the sample. All the 240 Senior High School and at least 5 percent – plus or minus – precision; and Students enrolled in Science, Technology, Engineering, that gives you Z values 1.96. As shown below, your and Mathematics (STEM) Strand in a school, for sample size will be 384. example, constitute the population; 60 of those students constitute the sample. A good sample should have characteristics of the represented population – characteristics that are within the scope of the study with fair accuracy. Generally, the larger the sample, the more reliable the sample be, but still, it will depend on the scope and delimitation and research design of the 2.4 POWER ANALYSIS study. This approach is founded on the principle of 2.0 APPROACHES IN IDENTIFYING THE power analysis. There are two principles you need to SAMPLE SIZE consider if you are going to use this approach: these are statistical power and effect size. 2.1 HEURISTICS The probability of rejecting the null This approach refers to the general rule or rule hypothesis is called statistical power. It suggests of the thumb for sample size. This is the earliest that indeed there is a relationship between the established approach for sample sizes for different independent and dependent variables of the research designs. research study. The ideal statistical power of a research study is 80%. With the statistical power, it will be used to identify the sufficient sample size for measuring the effect size of a certain treatment. The level of difference between the experimental group and the control group refers to effect size. If the statistical power tells that relationship between independent and dependent variables, the effect size suggests the extent of the relationship between these two variables. Henceforth, the higher the effect size, means the greater the level 2.2 LITERATURE REVIEW difference between the experimental and control groups. For example, your research study reveals Another approach is by reading similar or that there is a difference in the pretest and posttest related literature and studies to your current research scores of the students in the given anxiety test after study. Since you are done writing your review of related implementing a psychosocial intervention. With the literature and studies, you might want to recall how effect size, you will have an idea of how small or these studies determine sample size. Using this large the difference is. approach increases the validity of your sampling procedure. 3.0 PROBABILITY SAMPLING IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH 2.3 FORMULAS Formulas are also being established for the 3.1 SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING computation of an acceptable sample size. You can use different formulas depending on what you know It is a way of choosing individuals in which all and do not know about the population. These tools are members of the accessible population are given an also available online. One formula for determining equal chance to be selected. There are various ways of sample size that you can follow is the Cochran obtaining samples through simple random sampling. These are fishbowl technique, roulette wheel, or use of the table of random numbers. 3.4 SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING This procedure is as simple as selecting 3.2 STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING samples every nth (example every 2nd, 5th) of the The same with simple random sampling, chosen population until arriving at a desired total stratified random sampling also gives an equal number of sample size. Therefore, the selection is chance to all members of the population to be chosen. based on a predetermined interval. Dividing the However, the population is first divided into population size by the sample size, the interval will be strata or groups before selecting the samples. The obtained. For example, from a total population of 75, samples are chosen from these subgroups and not you have 25 samples; using systematic sampling, you directly from the entire population. This procedure is will decide to select every 3rd person on the list of best used when the variables of the study are also individuals. grouped into classes such as gender and grade level. LESSON 3: RESEARCH INSTRUMENT, VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY Example: A population of 600 Junior High School students 1.0 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH includes 180 Grade 7, 160 Grade 8, 150 Grade 9, and INSTRUMENT 110 Grade 10. If the computed sample size is 240, the following proportionate sampling will be as Research Instruments are basic tools follows. researchers used to gather data for specific research The number of members per subgroup is divided by problems. Common instruments are performance the total accessible sample size. The percentage tests, questionnaires, interviews, and observation result of members per subgroup will be multiplied checklist. The first two instruments are usually used in from the computed total sample size. After quantitative research, while the last two instruments obtaining the sample size per strata, then simple are often in qualitative research. However, interviews random sampling will be done for the selection of and observation checklists can still be used in samples from each group. quantitative research once the information gathered is translated into numerical data. 2.0 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH INSTRUMENT 1. Concise. Have you tried answering a very long test, and because of its length, you just pick 3.3 CLUSTER SAMPLING the answer without even reading it? A good research instrument is concise in length yet This procedure is usually applied in can elicit the needed data. large-scale studies, geographical spread out of the 2. Sequential. Questions or items must be population is a challenge, and gathering information arranged well. It is recommended to arrange it will be very time-consuming. Similar to stratified from simplest to the most complex. In this random sampling, cluster sampling also involves way, the instrument will be more favorable to grouping of the population according to subgroups or the respondents to answer. clusters. It is a method where multiple clusters of 3. Valid and reliable. The instrument should pass people from the chosen population will be created by the tests of validity and reliability to get more the researcher in order to have homogenous appropriate and accurate information. characteristics. 4. Easily tabulated. Since you will be For example, a researcher would like to constructing an instrument for quantitative interview of all public senior high school students research, this factor should be considered. across Mindanao. As a researcher cluster will be Hence, before crafting the instruments, the selected to satisfy the plan size. In the given example, researcher makes sure that the variable and the first cluster can be by region, the second cluster research questions are established. These will can be by division, and the third cluster can be by be an important basis for making items in the district. research instruments. 3.0 WAYS IN DEVELOPING RESEARCH INSTRUMENT There are three ways you can consider in developing the research instrument for your study. 1. Adopting an instrument from the already utilized instruments from previous related studies. 2. Modifying an existing instrument when the available instruments do not yield the exact  data that will answer the research problem. 3. The researcher made his own instrument that 5.3 CONSTRUCT VALIDITY corresponds to the variable and scope of his It refers to the validity of instruments as it current study. corresponds to the theoretical construct of the study. 4.0 COMMON SCALES USED IN It is concerning if a specific measure relates to other QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH measures. 5.4 CONCURRENT VALIDITY 4.1 LIKERT SCALE When the instrument can predict results like This is the most common scale used in those similar tests already validated, it has concurrent quantitative research. Respondents were asked to rate validity. or rank statements according to the scale provided. Example: A Likert scale that measures the attitude of 5.5 PREDICTIVE VALIDITY students towards distance learning. When the instrument can produce results similar to those similar tests that will be employed in the future, it has predictive validity. This is particularly useful for the aptitude test. 6.0 RELIABILITY OF INSTRUMENT 4.2 SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL Reliability refers to the consistency of the measures In this scale, a series of bipolar adjectives will or results instrument. be rated by the respondents. This scale seems to be more advantageous since it is more flexible and easier 6.1 TEST-RETEST RELIABILITY to construct. Example: On a description of an active student in It is achieved by giving the same test to the school activities. same group of respondents twice. The consistency of the two scores will be checked. 6.2 EQUIVALENT FORMS RELIABILITY 5.0 TYPES OF VALIDITY INSTRUMENT It is established by administering two identical tests except for wordings to the same group of Validity respondents. A research instrument is considered valid if it 6.3 INTERNAL CONSISTENCY RELIABILITY measures what it supposed to measure. When measuring oral communication proficiency It determines how well the items measure the students, performance level of speech using rubric, same construct. It is reasonable that when a or rating scale is more valid than students are given respondent gets a high score in one item, he will also multiple choice tests. get one in similar items. There are three ways to Validity also has several types: face, content, measure the internal consistency; through the construct, concurrent, and predictive validity. split-half coefficient, Cronbach’s alpha, and Kuder-Richardson formula. 5.1 FACE VALIDITY LESSON 4: RESEARCH INTERVENTION It is also known as “logical validity.” It calls for 1.0 NATURE OF RESEARCH an initiative judgment of the instruments as it INTERVENTION “appear.” Just by looking at the instrument, the researcher decides if it is valid. In experimental research, the researcher decides the nature of intervention or treatment. 5.2 CONTENT VALIDITY Intervention pertains to what is going to happen to the subjects of the study. This decision covers who will An instrument that is judged with content receive the intervention and to what extent it will be validity meets the objectives of the study. It is done by applied to them. checking the statements or questions if this elicits the For example, in a study of determining the needed information. Experts in the field of interest can effects of special tutorial program to learners at risk of also provide specific elements that should be failing (LARF), researcher decides the group of LARF measured by the instrument. who will receive intervention. In this example, a special tutorial program is the research intervention. Furthermore, the extent to which the program will be administered to the learners is determined. hand, interview is when you ask respondents orally to tell you the responses. Since you are doing quantitative 2.0 STEPS IN DESCRIBING THE research, it is expected that responses have numerical RESEARCH INTERVENTION PROCESS value either it is nominal or ordinal in form. 1. Write the Background Information. It is an introductory paragraph that explains the 2.3 EXPERIMENT relevance of the intervention to the study When your study is an experimental design, it conducted. It also includes the context and was already discussed in the previous lesson that it duration of the treatment. would use treatment or intervention. After the chosen 2. Describe the Differences and Similarities subjects, participants, or respondents undergone the between the Experimental and Control Group. intervention, the effects of such treatment will be State what will happen and what will not both measured. in the experimental and control groups. This will clearly illustrate the parameters of the 3.0 THREE PHASES IN DATA research groups. COLLECTION 3. Describe the Procedures of the Intervention. Describe how will the experimental group In doing research, data collection is a major receive or experience the condition. It includes component of research. Neglecting to clarify the how will the intervention happens to achieve collection procedure would result in acquiring the desired result of the study. For example, inaccurate data that will make you research study how will the special tutorial program will take invalid. Hence, the data collection procedure is given place? meticulous attention to gather appropriate data. You 4. Explain the Basis of Procedures. The reason are making sure that data you will gather answers to for choosing the intervention and process your research questions. should clear and concrete reasons. The The data gathering procedure is presented in a researcher explains why the procedures are paragraph format in your research paper. Basically, the necessary. In addition, the theoretical and contents are the steps you are going to follow: conceptual basis for choosing the procedures (1) before you will gather the data is presented to establish the validity of the (2) what to do during the actual gathering of procedures. data (3) the things to consider after data has been LESSON 5: PLANNING DATA COLLECTION gathered. PROCEDURE The following are the suggested steps but not limited to it, are the procedures in gathering quantitative data. 1.0 QUANTITATIVE DATA When research data appears to be measurable in the numerical form, it is considered quantitative data. However, some qualitative data can also be useful to quantitative research once it is given a numerical value. For example, if you study about adjustment experiences of students to distant learning, if it is categorized and numbered accordingly, then it can be quantified during analysis. 2.0 TECHNIQUES IN COLLECTING QUANTITATIVE DATA LESSON 6: PLANNING DATA ANALYSIS 2.1 OBSERVATION 1.0 DATA ANALYSIS It is gathering information about a certain condition by using senses. The researcher records the Data analysis in research is a process in which observation as seen and heard. This is done by direct gathered information are summarized in such a observation or indirect observation using gadgets or manner that it will yield answers to the research apparatus. An observation checklist aids the questions. During quantitative data analysis gathered researcher in recording the data gathered. information were break down and ordered into categories in order to draw trends or patterns in a 2.2 SURVEY certain condition. In quantitative research, the numerical data collected is not taken as a whole. In Data gathering is done through interview or order to understand it better, it is analyzed into questionnaire. By means of questionnaire you use components based on the chosen research variables series of questions or statements that respondents and research questions you are going to answer. will have to answer. Basically, respondents write or These numerical data are usually subject to choose their answer from given choices. On the other statistical treatment depending on the nature of data and the type of research problem presented. The Test of Difference between Two Data Sets from Two statistical treatment makes explicit the different Different Groups statistical methods and formulas needed to analyze ➔ T-test for independent samples (parametric) the research data. ➔ Two-way chi-square (non-parametric for nominal variable) 2.0 PLANNING YOUR DATA ANALYSIS ➔ Mann-Whitney U test (non-parametric for ordinal variable) Before choosing what statistical test is appropriate for your research study it is important to Test More than Two Population Means determine what statistical formation is applicable to ➔ Analysis of Variance or ANOVA (parametric) your current study. In immersing yourself into planning Test the Strength of Relation or Effect or Impact your data analysis, you have to decide what basic ➔ Regression (parametric) descriptive statistical technique you are going to use. LESSON 7: PRESENTING RESEARCH Although this technique does not give you the degree METHODOLOGY of association or effect between variables, this will help you to code and simply tabulate your data. 1.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Descriptive Statistical Technique provides a summary of the ordered or sequenced data You need to consider the parts of your research from your research sample. Examples of these methodology; these are: tools are frequency distribution, measure of 1. Research Design central tendencies (mean, median, mode), and 2. Research Population and Sample standard deviation. 3. Sampling Procedure Inferential Statistics is used when the 4. Research Instruments research study focuses on finding predictions; 5. Validity and Reliability of Instruments testing hypothesis; and finding interpretations, 6. Research Intervention (if applicable) generalizations, and conclusions. Since this 7. Data Collection Procedure statistical method is more complex and has 8. Data Analysis more advanced mathematical computations, you can use computer software to aid your LESSON 1-7: SUMMARY analysis. In order to integrate all the components of the You also must identify types of statistical analysis of research study, the research design describes variable in your quantitative research. the overall strategy of the research. Types of Univariate analysis - analysis of one variable. quantitative research are descriptive, Bivariate analysis - two variables such as correlational, ex post facto, independent and dependent variables quasi-experimental, and experimental Multivariate analysis - analysis of the multiple research. relations between multiple variables. Population refers to all the members of a particular group relevant to the research. Furthermore, selecting what test to use is basically Sample is a part of the population that serves done by identifying whether you will use parametric as a representative. Sample are chosen test or non-parametric test. through sampling which is a process of selecting of who will participate. The usual sampling procedures in quantitative research are simple random sampling, stratified random sampling, cluster sampling, and systematic sampling. Research Instrument refers to the tools used In addition, in choosing statistical techniques in in research for the purpose of gathering the quantitative research, the purpose or objective of the data. Common scales used in quantitative research study should be considered. research are Likert Scale and Semantic Test of Relationship between Two Variables Differential. ➔ Pearson’s r (parametric) It is important in quantitative research to use ➔ Phi coefficient (non-parametric for nominal valid instruments. Validity refers to the and dichotomous variables) appropriateness of the research instrument. ➔ Spearman’s rho (non-parametric for ordinal Types of validity are face, content, construct, variable) concurrent, and predictive validity. Test of Difference between Two Data Sets from One The consistency in research findings provided Group by instruments refers to reliability. Types of ➔ T-test for dependent samples (parametric) reliability are test-retest, equivalent forms, and ➔ McNemar change test (non-parametric for internal consistency. nominal and dichotomous variables) For quasi-experiment and experimental ➔ Wilcoxon signed-rank test (non-parametric research designs, intervention is applied in for ordinal variable) order to know who will receive the intervention  and to what extent. Data gathering in quantitative research usually observes survey, observation, and experiment. There are three phases in data gathering of research that need to be presented in the research paper: before, during, and after procedures. Data Analysis is a process in which gathered information are summarized in such a manner that it will yield answers to the research questions. There are two major statistical technique in data analysis, these are descriptive and inferential statistics.