PPE3003 Exam 2 Study Guide PDF

Genetics and Personality What is heritability, and why is it important in understanding personality traits? Proportion of variance in phenotype that can be accounted for by variance in genotype. Variance in phenotype=people differ in looks personality IQ et...

Genetics and Personality What is heritability, and why is it important in understanding personality traits? Proportion of variance in phenotype that can be accounted for by variance in genotype. Variance in phenotype=people differ in looks personality IQ etc. Variance in genotype = people differ in what genes they have. Heritability is important in understanding personality traits because it provides a measure of how much variation in a personality trait within a population can be attributed to genetic factors, essentially indicating the relative influence of genetics versus environmental factors on individual differences in personality traits, allowing researchers to explore the biological basis of personality and its potential links to other traits or behaviors. Consider examples of genetic and environmental influences on personality. How do shared and non-shared environments contribute differently to developing personality traits? Genetic influences on personality can include inherited predispositions towards traits like extroversion, neuroticism, or agreeableness, while environmental influences include factors like upbringing, social interactions, and life experiences, with "shared environments" referring to experiences common to siblings within a family and "non-shared environments" being unique experiences that differentiate siblings, often playing a larger role in shaping personality traits; essentially, shared environments contribute to similarities between siblings while non-shared environments contribute to their differences. What are the different types of gene-environment correlations (passive, reactive, and active)? The three types of gene-environment correlations are: passive, reactive (or evocative), and active; where passive refers to a child inheriting both genes and environment from their parents, reactive describes how a person's genetic traits influence how others interact with them, and active means an individual actively selects environments based on their genetic predispositions. Explanation: ​ Passive gene-environment correlation: ​ This occurs when a child is exposed to an environment shaped by their parent's genes, which they also share genetically. For example, a child with genes linked to athletic ability might be raised in a household that actively encourages sports participation. ​ Reactive (or evocative) gene-environment correlation: ​ This happens when a person's genetic traits trigger specific responses from their environment. For instance, a child with a naturally outgoing personality might receive more social interaction from peers compared to a more reserved child. ​ Active gene-environment correlation: ​ This involves an individual actively choosing environments that align with their genetic predispositions. For example, someone with a high aptitude for academics may choose to attend a challenging school with advanced courses. What are the potential dangers of studying behavioral genetics? The potential dangers of studying behavioral genetics include genetic essentialism (believing genes solely determine behavior), discrimination based on genetic predispositions, privacy concerns regarding genetic data, social stigma attached to certain genetic variations, misuse of research findings for eugenics, and the potential to overlook environmental factors that significantly influence behavior; all of which could lead to societal harms like prejudice and discrimination against individuals based on their genetic makeup. Gender and Sex Differences in Personality Reflect on the differences in personality traits between men and women. How do theories like socialization theory explain these differences? While some research indicates average differences in personality traits between men and women, with men often scoring higher in traits like assertiveness and aggression, and women exhibiting more nurturing and agreeableness, socialization theory argues that these differences primarily stem from societal expectations and gender roles learned throughout life, not inherent biological factors; essentially, boys are taught to behave "masculine" and girls are encouraged to act "feminine"  through interactions with parents, peers, and media, shaping their personalities according Understand what effect sizes are and how they are measured.ost sex differences are small. How do we measure this? Effect size strength of the difference between two variables X: women’s agreeableness vs men’s agreeablenessHow strong is the difference between the avg woman and the average man on agreeableness What are the main findings from research on sex differences, and how do these compare across cultures? Research on sex differences generally finds that while some consistent patterns exist across cultures, the magnitude of these differences varies significantly depending on the cultural context, with more developed, gender-equal societies often showing larger sex differences in personality traits; key findings include women generally reporting higher levels of agreeableness, neuroticism, and warmth, while men tend to score higher in assertiveness and openness to ideas, but these differences can be greatly influenced by social roles and expectations within each culture. How does context affect the expression of gender differences (e.g., women’s agreeableness)? Context can affect the expression of gender differences in several ways, including: ​ Social media ​ On social media, women reported higher levels of agreeableness than men compared to offline. ​ Situational demands ​ Gender differences are more pronounced when situational demands are low or non-existent, or in ambiguous situations. ​ Social role status ​ In one study, women were more communal regardless of social role status, and especially communal with other women. ​ Decision-making ​ Women are more sensitive to relevant information provided in a decision-making context and change their behavior accordingly.  Other factors that can influence gender differences include: Cultural background: A person's cultural background can shape the expression of self-esteem. Gender-specific roles: Children grow up into adults with gender-specific roles in society, which can shape their personalities. Evolutionary account: This account suggests that gender differences in personality traits stem from the different adaptive challenges that men and women faced throughout history. How do gender differences change across the lifespan? Gender differences tend to become more pronounced as people age, with women generally living longer than men due to biological factors, but the gap can vary depending on lifestyle choices and access to healthcare, with men often experiencing higher mortality rates at most life stages, especially from accidents and violence in younger years and chronic diseases in later life; additionally, gender roles and expectations can also influence health behaviors across the lifespan, contributing to these differences. Key points about how gender differences change across the lifespan: ​ Early life: ​ While some differences may exist in infant mortality rates, the most significant gap in life expectancy usually begins to appear during adolescence and young adulthood, where males tend to have higher mortality rates due to risky behaviors like accidents and violence. ​ Midlife: ​ As people age, the gender gap in life expectancy widens, with women generally experiencing better health outcomes and lower mortality rates compared to men. This is often attributed to biological factors like hormone differences and genetics. ​ Later life: ​ In older age, women may experience a higher prevalence of certain chronic diseases like arthritis and depression, while men are more likely to suffer from heart disease and certain cancers. Factors contributing to gender differences across the lifespan: ​ Biology: ​ Hormonal variations, genetic differences, and immune system functions can impact health and longevity between genders. ​ Lifestyle behaviors: ​ Men tend to engage in more risky behaviors like smoking and excessive alcohol consumption, which can contribute to higher mortality rates. ​ Social expectations: ​ Gender roles and societal norms can influence health-seeking behaviors and access to healthcare. ​ Healthcare access: ​ Women often have better access to preventive healthcare, leading to earlier detection of health issues. Physiology of Personality How do neurotransmitters like dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine influence personality traits? Neurotransmitters like dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine are thought to influence personality traits by regulating mood, motivation, and behavioral responses to stimuli, with dopamine often linked to novelty-seeking and reward-driven behavior, serotonin associated with mood stability and harm avoidance, and norepinephrine related to alertness and arousal, potentially impacting traits like extroversion, neuroticism, and conscientiousness; however, the exact relationship between these neurotransmitters and personality is complex and still being researched extensively. Key points about each neurotransmitter and personality: ​ Dopamine: High levels: This may be associated with increased extroversion, sociability, and openness to new experiences due to its role in reward processing and pleasure-seeking. Low levels: Could be linked to decreased motivation, lethargy, and potential for depression. ​ Serotonin: ​ Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline): Important considerations: ​ Complex interactions: ​ The interplay between these neurotransmitters is intricate, and their influence on personality likely depends on the balance between them rather than just individual levels. ​ Genetic factors: ​ Individual variations in genes coding for neurotransmitter receptors can significantly impact how someone responds to these chemicals, influencing personality traits. ​ Environmental influences: ​ Life experiences and environmental factors also play a major role in shaping personality, interacting with neurotransmitter activity. What is MAO and what is its relevance to behavior? Monoamine oxidase is an enzyme that plays a role in breaking down neurotransmitters like serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine. It is associated with aggression and is targeted in the treatment of certain mood disorders and neurodegenerative illnesses. Think about how changes in neurotransmitter levels can alter behaviors related to reward, punishment, and social interaction. Changes in neurotransmitter levels, particularly dopamine, serotonin, and oxytocin, can significantly impact behaviors related to reward, punishment, and  social interaction by influencing how the brain processes pleasurable experiences, negative stimuli, and social cues, respectively; with increased levels generally promoting reward-seeking behavior, while decreased levels can lead to reduced motivation or increased sensitivity to punishment, and alterations in social interaction levels can be observed depending on the specific neurotransmitter involved. How do relatively introverted and extroverted individuals differ from the perspective of physiology? Inrovers require less stimulation while introverts have a higher need for stimulation a Understand BIS/BAS. How do they explain individual differences in motivation and behavior? BIS (Behavioral Inhibition System) and BAS (Behavioral Activation System) are two theoretical systems within psychology that explain individual differences in motivation and behavior by suggesting people have varying levels of sensitivity to potential punishments (BIS) or rewards (BAS), influencing how they approach or avoid situations, with high BIS individuals tending to be more cautious and anxiety-prone, while high BAS individuals are more impulsive and reward-seeking Cultural Influences on Personality How do cultures influence the development of personality traits? Think about the differences between transmitted culture and evoked culture. Cultures influence personality trait development by shaping the values, beliefs, and behaviors that individuals learn through socialization within their community, with "transmitted culture" referring to learned practices passed down through generations, while "evoked culture" describes behaviors triggered by environmental factors that are present across different cultures but expressed differently depending on the situation; essentially, transmitted culture is what people are taught, while evoked culture is what naturally emerges in response to environmental cues. How do moral judgments differ across cultures, and what are the key components of Moral Foundations Theory? Moral judgments differ across cultures due to varying social norms, values, religious beliefs, and historical contexts, leading to different interpretations of what is  considered morally right or wrong, even when seemingly universal principles like fairness are involved; Moral Foundations Theory posits that these moral judgments are based on five key foundations: Care/Harm, Fairness/Reciprocity, Loyalty/Betrayal, Authority/Respect, and Purity/Sanctity, which can be weighted differently depending on the culture. Consider how Eastern and Western cultures are often different at the level of personality. Generally speaking, people in the West tend to be more individualist, and people from Asian countries like India, Japan, or China tend to be more collectivist. Crucially, our “social orientation” appears to spill over into more fundamental aspects of reasoning