PPD240 Notes (Midterm 1) PDF

Lecture 1 Citizenship in the US ○ “All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside.” ○ Foreign-born children, under age 18, residing in the U.S. with their birth or adoptive parents,...

Lecture 1 Citizenship in the US ○ “All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside.” ○ Foreign-born children, under age 18, residing in the U.S. with their birth or adoptive parents, at least one of whom is a U.S. citizen by birth or naturalization, are citizens of the United States ○ Individuals are granted citizenship status by the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) (naturalized U.S. citizens). US Naturalization test ○ English requirement A naturalization applicant must demonstrate an understanding of the English language, including an ability to read, write, and speak words in ordinary usage. Speaking: Your ability to speak English will be determined by a USCIS Officer during your eligibility interview on Form N-400, Application for Naturalization. Reading: You must read aloud one out of three sentences correctly to demonstrate an ability to read in English. Writing: You must write one out of three sentences correctly to demonstrate an ability to write in English. ○ Civics requirement An naturalization applicant must also demonstrate a knowledge and understanding of the fundamentals of the history and principles and form of government of the United States (civics). Passing the civics test ○ The applicant must answer correctly at least 6 out of 10 questions from the standardized civics test form administered by an officer. ○ The officer administers the test orally. ○ Components of the test American government - 57% Principle of American Democracy System of Government Rights and responsibilities American history - 30% Colonial period and Independence 1800s Recent American history and other important historical information Integrated civics - 13% Geography Symbols Official holidays ○ Exception If you’re over the age of 50 and have lived in the U.S. for 20 years or more, you can take the civics test in your native language. This also applies to those age 55 and older, who have lived in the U.S. for 15 or more years. Lecture 2 Citizenship ○ Legal definitions of citizenship vary, across states (countries) and across time within. ○ Normative definitions of citizenship include several political philosophies. Liberalist (vs. Communitarianism) Universalist (vs. Differentialist) Nationalist (vs. Globalist) ○ Dictionary definition Oxford The position or status of being a citizen of a particular country. Cambridge The state of having the rights of a person born in a particular country. Citizenship is carrying out the duties and responsibilities of a member of a particular society. Public ethics ○ Central to political philosophy and tied to questions of citizenship. How do we collectively and individually come to the conclusion that an action is ethical? (Definition of ethics) What about in the name of the state? To what (or to whom) are we obligated when making decisions that affect others? (Obligation) What is the importance of institutions in determining “moral action”? (Institution) How do norms develop? To what extent are rules effective? (Norms and rules) What is more important: how we act or what comes of our actions? (Social order and behavior) In a democracy, what is the difference between a delegate and a trustee? Delegate: In the delegate model, representatives act primarily as messengers or agents of their constituents, making decisions based on the wishes and preferences of the people who elected them. ○ Delegates see their role as directly reflecting the views of their electorate, often putting aside their own judgment or opinions in favor of what their constituents want. ○ This model emphasizes direct democracy principles, where the will of the electorate is paramount. Trustee: The trustee model suggests that representatives are elected for their judgment and expertise and should make decisions based on what they independently determine to be the best interests of their constituents and the broader public. Trustees believe they should consider the views of their constituents but are not bound by them if they believe different actions would serve their constituents' interests better. This model is more aligned with the principles of a representative democracy, where elected officials are trusted to make decisions on behalf of the people. What it means to be a citizen ○ “It is not always the same thing to be a good man and a good citizen” — Aristotle ○ Civil disobedience The refusal to comply with certain laws or to pay taxes and fines. A peaceful form of political protest. Democratic citizenship ○ Only 22 of the world’s existing democracies have been continuously democratic for a period of 50 years or more. ○ Privilege of membership of a particular kind of political community. ○ “Citizens make the way that power is exercised and the attitudes of citizens to each other.” Control political leaders Control each other Treat others on the basis of equal concern and respect (equity and reciprocity) ○ Components Membership of belonging Members contribute to the political and the socio-economic life of the community. Requires common civic culture, trust and solidarity among citizens. Not everyone enjoys political membership. ○ Internal exclusion: race, gender, property ownership, education level, age, criminal records, physical and mental illness. ○ External inclusion: immigrants, asylum seekers. Benefits and rights associated with membership Citizens seek fair terms of association to secure goods that are necessary for them to pursue their lives on equal terms with others. Declaration of Independence ○ “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.” T.H. Marshall 3 types of rights ○ Civil rights Rights necessary for individual freedom. Law and equality was guaranteed to protect the liberty of the people. Eg. Bill of rights ○ Political rights Voting rights The right to participate in the policy-making process ○ Social rights Rights to be able to live in a society as a civilized being, according to the prevailing standards in society with economic welfare. Eg. Publicly funded healthcare, free public education, social security Participation in the community’s political, economic, and social processes Being actively engaged in the political decision making process of the community. ○ Voting ○ Speaking out ○ Campaigning ○ Standing for office Contribution to the community ○ Paying taxes ○ Volunteering ○ Serving in the army Paradox and dilemma of citizenship ○ Rights involve duties. People like to claim their rights, but are not enthusiastic to perform their duties. Decreasing participation in voting Decreasing public trust in government Negative public feelings toward government Decreasing participation ○ Causes Resignation Increased inequalities between social groups Low trust in government / little hope for change Winner-takes-it-all system / zero-sum game Temptation to free ride People seek direct personal benefits while neglecting public goods (non rivalry, non-excludable goods) Citizens take a consumer approach to government, while politicians treat them like consumers. ○ Consequences Difficult to produce or preserve collective goods that require citizen collaboration Perverse long-term effect on the community and on individuals. Deterioration of the quality of public services. Wealthy people replace public service with private services. Private school, private health insurance, private security companies ○ Government response Emphasizing citizen responsibilities Marketising public services Successful only if there is clear technical evaluation criteria for what good service is like (gas, electricity, and telephone services). Unsuccessful if there are moral aspects of service provision (public education and health care). Treating citizens as consumers Research on citizen preferences Use marketing strategies like branding and advertisement One person’s marketing is another person’s propaganda???? Depoliticizing economic and political institutions for impartiality Independent agencies and courts. Lecture 3 - Historical Origins Two faces of citizenship ○ Duty-based citizenship Emphasizes responsibilities of citizens. Pay Taxes Obey the laws Vote in elections Serve in military Duty-based citizens view political participation as both a duty and a privilege earned by everyday social items such as obeying the law and paying taxes. ○ Engaged citizenship Emphasizes non-electoral participation (volunteer responsibilities). Being active in civil society groups. Participate in social activism Keep watch on government Understand each other Make the world and the American society better Engaged citizenship is defined as non-electoral participation, where emotional and normative factors contribute to the involvement in civil society and solidarity groups. ○ Contrasts can be exhibited between younger and older generations, where important themes, such as political participation and government images, may differ based on their view of citizenship. Dalton's definition of duty-based and engaged citizenship may provide insight into the understanding of Bellamy's definitions of empirical and normative theories, where empirical theories explore social, economic, and political processes that shape citizenship. In contrast, normative theories aim to define a citizen's ideal rights and duties through historical perspectives. Generational differences ○ Younger generations are much more engaged than older generations. ○ We are less concerned with duties. Younger generations tend to have a lower participation rate in elections compared to older generations. How should governments respond to increasing engagement-based citizenship? History of citizenship ○ Components of citizenship ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ Membership Rights Participation Importance of understandings the historical and normative views of citizenship Determine the ways in which society is organized. Implicitly or explicitly, concepts of citizenship are “invariably motivated by a particular normative ideal and focus on identifying the ways certain normative possibilities were foreclosed to some people and opened up for others.” (Bellamy, ch. 2) Normative theories of citizenship legitimize and shape the demands and actions of the various social and political actors who create legal citizenship Citizenship in ancient Egypt and China Divine king enjoyed absolute power Kings were considered to be “god of the Sun” or “Son of Heaven” Highly professional public bureaucrats Bureaucrats, who serve the state and the king, were respected. Well-organized to execute large public works. Played very important roles in the state; they determined and implemented policies according to the will of the king. Education was important to foster good public officials. Weak citizenship People generally had little to no rights and no participation. High citizenship Characterized by sensitivity to interactions with others and consequences. Low citizenship Characterized by the pursuit of self-interest and competitive individualism. High professionalism Characterized by sensitivity to professional standards exempt from public and community standards. Low professionalism Characterized by less regard for professional standards. Ancient Greek citizenship “kata phusin zoon politikon (man is by nature a political animal)” — Aristotle Ideal democracy in Athens Political citizenship by nature. ○ Citizenship = politics Citizens are those who “rule and are being ruled”. ○ Direct control of government by citizens. ○ Participation in civic affairs ○ Political equality Assumption: all men are highly cognitive, active, and virtuous. Why Greece as a case study? City-states ○ Estimated Athenian population: about 200,000-300,000 total / about 30,000- 40,000 eligible citizens ○ Small society where people had close relationship to each other Strong Kinship Shared Common Interests And Values ○ People had more incentives to care about the issues being discussed. Freedom in Ancient Greece Human beings are political by nature ○ You discover who you are through political activities. ○ If you are denied to make political decisions, you are denied from fulfilling the meaning of your life. Freedom to take part in public decisions ○ Content of the decision mattered less than the fact that they were participating in the decision-making process. ○ Participation itself has meaningful ends, not the means to achieve some policy goals. Citizen duties Attend assembly meetings. ○ About three times a month ○ Paid participation as an incentive Jury duty All citizens must hold public offices at some point. Politics in Athens Yes ○ Trade with other nations ○ Government corruption No ○ Medical care ○ Education ○ Housing development ○ Childcare Oikos (household affairs) were strictly separated from polis (public affairs). ○ Oikos are not discussed in public. People rarely talked about it with others. Only polis were discussed and decided. ○ National defense ○ Commerce Citizenship requirements Excluded populations ○ Children (must be age 20 and over) ○ Slaves (both male and female) ○ Foreigners ○ Women Citizenship was limited to ○ Adult male ○ Born to a citizen family (no recent immigrants) ○ Must own slaves to take care of his oikos If one must take care of his household affairs, it was believed that he could not fully commit himself to public affairs to pursue his own interests Public office / public administration Non-paying full-time jobs, except for meals. Public offices were chosen by lot. ○ Everyone had an equal chance of exercising political powers. ○ No one citizen could have too much power in hand for too long. ○ Usually serve for a year, maximum for 2 years. No career politicians, no career administrators ○ No expertise, no professionalism ○ Slaves, instead, worked as permanent workers. Not much work to do ○ Np public land, non agricultural land, no social welfare system, no public education, no public constructions. Focuses more on duties than rights. Public interests & private interests Private interests were considered inferior to public interests. ○ They are opposite values --- you cannot pursue them simultaneously. ○ If one has to take care of his own worldly business (oikos), he is disqualified from participating in public decision making. ○ You have to escape from oikos to enter the polis. In other words, to participate in politics, you must be rich enough to have slaves, and have no worldly private interests to pursue. ○ Sure enough, there were a lot of Greek artists, philosophers & poets. Limitations Extremely inefficient ○ Only feasible in a local setting with small population (not the US) Citizenship exclusions The idea that private interests and public interests conflict naturally. How much should we pay politicians? ○ Current privileges for the members of Congress Salary: $174,000 per year (some members like the Speaker of the House gets more) Constitution says that Congress decides its own salary, although any changes to the salary amount take place after the next congressional elections (27th Amendment) Medical and dental benefits Free office, parking, and trips to home state Staff budget Tax break on second home Citizenship in Sparta ○ Strong emphasis on citizen duty, little citizen rights. ○ Militaristic state All male adults join the army at age 7, until age 60. Citizens were not encouraged to speak in public nor to participate in political decision-making until they got old. If you do your citizenship duty (serve in the military), you receive a small amount of land. ○ Spartan women enjoyed more rights than other Greek women Allowed to own lands. Received similar military training as men. Roman citizenship ○ Legal citizenship emphasis ○ Citizens and non-citizens were treated differently. The officers would have whipped Paul (the case study example) if he were not a Roman citizen. ○ Roman citizens were protected by law. Paul asked if it was legal for the officers to torture a Roman citizen without a trial. The commander was frightened that he ordered to whip a Roman citizen. ○ You can be born outside of Rome and still be a Roman citizen. Paul was born in Tarsus, and probably had never been to Rome at the time. ○ You could purchase Roman citizenship with a lot of money. But it was considered inferior to citizenship by birth. ○ The meaning of citizenship changed. As the Roman territory expanded, direct political participation was no longer feasible. The Roman policy was to grant citizenship to local aristocrats who provided special services to the empire Foreigners could obtain citizenship if they reside 10+ years (less exclusive than the Greek citizenship). But their citizenship was often limited to prevent political participation. Later, citizenship was expanded to all eligible men in the Roman Empire. ○ Freedom in Rome Increased business transaction with foreigners How to ensure protection? Need for universal law system ○ ○ ○ Roman citizenship is legal citizenship. Equality before the law Importance of mutual obligation and rights under the law Free to act by law Free to ask and expect the law’s protection Romans don’t make or determine laws as in Ancient Greece. They needed a court and a judge. Citizenship as rights Romans thought that the universe was composed of “persons, actions, and things.” The importance of “things” People treated one another as the possessor of things. Things became the medium of communication. It is important to protect my things from others. Citizens possess rights to things / property protected by law. Public interests and private interests Roman entered politics to protect their private interests. Public interests emerge from the clash and balancing of private interests. Politics deal with diverse issues. Public administration Had several Executive departments. Public servants implemented large public works, collected taxes, and oversaw local issues. System and order Standardized bureaucratic ranks, salary, and procedures. Paid and highly respected in the society. Roman officials had power to define justices and equity. A duty to obey the moral law. Modern citizenship ○ Acquisition of citizenship rights were driven by class struggle and war. ○ Four time periods ○ ○ ○ State-building stage & the emergence of commercial and industrial economy. Revolutions and breakdown of the old regime. Nation-making stage. Stage 0: Citizenship under absolute monarchy Centralization of state powers Constant warfare with other countries for expansion Strong monarch supported by the elites Weak citizenship (subjects): emphasis on civic duty People were being loyal to the rulers, not to the nation Stage 1: State-building Early modern period (16-17th century) Emergence of commercial and industrial economy Creation of the infrastructure for public goods Development of reliable transport system Expansion of market economies Standardized system of weights and measures Unitary legal system Equality before the law Expansion of the middle-class Merchants, lawyers, and other professionals with money wanted more power and less state intervention. Civil rights Individual freedom to own property, exchange goods and services, attend religious services, to express one’s opinion etc. Stage 2: Revolutions and the Breakdown of the old world End of 18th to 19th century People started questioning social hierarchy. Policy making power was limited to a few elites. Middle class citizens wanted to obtain political rights, or the right to participate in politics of the state. The Enlightenment thinkers suggested new ideas on government. Social contract theory ○ Government requires consent of the governed. ○ Self-interested individuals who seek to protect their things enter social contract with the state The state protects myself and my property. I will relinquish some of my freedom in return to maintain social order ○ All men who entered the contract are equal, and they need to respect one another to be respected. Government (or the state) can intervene if one violates the rights of another. Government determines whose fault it is by the law. ○ Thomas Hobbes ○ Human beings are violent by nature; we pursue our self-interests aggressively by disrupting others. People enter the social contract for protection. We need a strong leviathan to control the chaos. ○ John Locke People aren’t too bad as Hobbes describes. Having a strong leviathan is more dangerous to individual freedom. Support limited government powers; just enough to control social order but not never too powerful to oppress individual freedom. Locke believed in a state of nature where individuals were free and equal, possessing natural rights to life, liberty, and property. Human nature is characterized by reason and tolerance, but in the state of nature, there was no established authority to protect these natural rights, leading to conflicts. French revolution The ideas of the French Revolution were drawn from the Enlightenment, influenced by the British political system, inspired by the American Revolution and shaped by local grievances. Liberty, Equality, Fraternity ○ Abolished aristocracy and eliminated political power of clergy ○ Established popular sovereignty and constitutionalism Citizens are not loyal to the rulers but to the nation. Declaration of the Rights of the Man and of the Citizen of 1789 ○ Citizen rights to liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression. ○ Equality ○ Rule of law ○ Political participation (voting) State 3: Nation-making Late 19th to mid-20th century Nations need Human Resources. Socialization of the population into a national consciousness. Training the people for a market and industrial economy Free, compulsory public education Linguistic standardization Popular press Conscript armies Citizens share certain common values and various special obligations towards one another. Citizens could communicate with each other using common idiom according to social norms/ Social rights The right to a modicum of economic welfare and security” ○ Expansion of bureaucracy. Lecture 4 - Citizen as groups: Madisonian pluralism and interests groups Citizen as groups ○ We are not heard as an individual citizen. ○ Oftentimes, we are represented by groups that reflect our identities. Organizations and institutions and associations. ○ “Americans of all ages, all conditions, all minds constantly unite. Not only do they have commercial and industrial associations in which all take part, but they also have a thousand other kinds: religious, moral, grave, futile, very general and very particular, immense and very small” — Tocqueville Madison - Federalist Paper £10 ○ Title : The Union as a Safeguard Against Domestic Faction and Insurrection ○ Objective: to discuss how “to break and control the violence of factions” ○ Factions “It is composed of the people who are united by some common impulse of passion, or of interest, adverse to the rights of other citizens, or to the permanent and aggregate interests of the community.” Observation 1: Faction is a group of people who came together for a common cause Observation 2: It often yields negative consequences. ○ Human nature Self-love ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ Selfish Biased Too emotional Unreasonable Groups can amplify such negative tendencies. Consequences on having factions Society divided by interests. Factions “grow up out of necessity in civilized nations, and divide them into different classes, actuated by different sentiments and views.” Each faction pursues its own interests zealously at the cost of the rights of other people. (Zero-sum game) Govern without concern for the “public good.” Why do we have factions? Human nature We tend to befriend someone who shares a similar background and wants the thing. Cure of factions To remove its causes or to control its effects. To eliminate the cause of factions Destroy individual liberty (worse than the disease) ○ Liberty is to faction what air is to fire ○ But it is folly to annihilate the air because it causes fire Every citizen has the same opinions, the same passions, and the same interests. ○ Impossible Possible solutions We must prevent their passion and dilute their power. Impartial and enlightened statesmen? Nay, can’t trust people with power. Instead, we must rely on a system of government Direct democracy? Susceptible to majority faction (populism) Tyranny of majority Republican form of government? YESSSSSS Why large Republic Larger population: more difficult for corrupt candidates to woo a large number of voters. Local and statewide biases do not spread to other parts of the country. Representatives from different parts of the country will have less time to conspire together because they have to work for their district to get reelected Can “refine and enlarge the public views”. Larger than direct democracy, thus making it more difficult for a majority faction to dominate. Can prevent tyranny of the majority. Interest groups politics in the US ○ Problems associated with factions Tyranny of the majority — biggest threat to popular government. ○ Madisonian pluralism “Ambition must be made to counteract ambition” — Federalist Papers 51 Pluralism is a political theory that organized groups provide a link between the citizens and government. We are all represented by groups. Pluralism ○ Groups at the heart of healthy democratic politics ○ Citizens do not need to have skills or knowledge to influence government decisions; they influence political decisions by supporting groups that specialize in a specific policy issue. ○ Group membership is important. ○ Politics is mainly a competition among diverse groups. Can prevent one group from dominating No group wins or loses all the time Many centers of power exist ○ Groups play by the rules. Various groups work together, make compromises with each other, balance one another to reach the common ground. ○ Public policy is the equilibrium of group struggle. ○ Thus, public interest will eventually prevail. Factions in modern society ○ Interest groups (special interests, organized interests) Private groups that attempt to influence the government to respond to the shared attitudes and ideas of their members. Protected by the First Amendment (freedom of speech & assembly) Business Groups Corporations, Chamber of Commerce, National Federation of Independent Business Unions Labor unions AFL-CIO, American Teachers Federation, the United Mine Workers Union Professional association American Medical Association, American Bar Association Citizen action groups ○ American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), Sierra Club Advocacy Club ○ Alzheimer's Association, American Cancer Society ○ Interest groups activities Represent specific or public interests. 1. Lobby government Direct or indirect contact with politicians/public officials Draft legislation or provide legislative support for politicians Conduct policy research 2. Engage in election activities PAC contribution Endorse candidates Rate candidate’s legislative records 3. Litigation Support litigation File amicus curiae (friends of courts) briefs 4. Educate public on various policy issues Campaigning the group’s policy stance for public through advertisements Make educational materials for school children 5. Mobilize the public Grassroots activities - consumer boycotts, participate in protests, make phone calls ○ What makes interest groups successful? Size Membership Organization Money’ Salience of the issue Conflict Degree of changes proposed Pros of interest group politics ○ Represent minorities Promote public interests ○ Serve as watchdog Groups monitor government activities to make sure there is no corruption and no wastes. They evaluate government policies to see how effective they are. Groups also monitor media, local issues, corporations, and other interest groups and propose recommendations. ○ Stimulate discussion on policy issues Groups use media and social media to raise awareness of the issue. ice bucket challenge by the ALS Association. They provide facts through research. ○ Policy entrepreneur Interest groups bring new policy ideas. They propose innovative solutions that government agencies might not have considered due to restrictions. Cons of interest group politics ○ Hyperpluralism There are too many strong competing groups demanding the policies they want. Government policies are influenced too much by the group interests ○ Politicians try to appease all the groups, resulting in confusing, contradictory policies. Iron triangle ○ Interest groups ○ Government agencies ○ Congressional committees ○ Networks of groups form a strong connection and exercise a great deal of control over specific policy area Regulatory capture ○ Government agencies work so closely with corporations that the presumption is they become sympathetic to them (is this true?) ○ Corporations provide biased information to the agencies (is this true?) ○ Government officials have limited time and resources compared to the corporations, and they just follow the corporation’s recommendation (is this true?) Food Politics ○ The US Department of Agriculture’s dietary guidelines are affected enormously by various industries. ○ USDA withdrew the from dietary guidelines. WHY? Elitism Even though there are many groups, only a few groups will dominate. Real power is held by the relative few. Not every group has the equal access to resources necessary to influence public policy. Groups that represent upper-class elites get more resources (money, expertise, networks), more power. Influential interest groups may not support public opinion. Underrepresentation of minorities Madisonian Pluralism ○ Are groups promoting American democracy as Madison imagined? Should we regulate them? ○ Should we deregulate group activities? ○ How does administrative capacity either exacerbate or stem the effects of concentrated power in interest group politics? Lecture 5 - The US Constitution and Separation of Powers Four core principles of the Constitution ○ Popular Sovereignty Government power resides in the people ○ Limits on government power Government is not all powerful, it can only do what the people let it. Consent of the governed ○ Separation of Powers Helps prevent one branch from becoming too powerful Checks and Balances ○ Federalism Division of power among national and state governments Separation of powers ○ Fed. Paper 51 Title: The Structure of the Government Must Furnish the Checks and Balances Between the Different Departments. Objective: to persuade the anti-Federalists and others who oppose establishing a new constitution because they fear that liberty will be lost Main argument: we can have a strong centralized government and preserve individual liberty if we control the power of government properly through the separation of powers and checks and balances “If men were angels, no government would be necessary. If angels were to govern men, neither external nor internal controls on government would be necessary.” Since we are not angels, we do need a government. And we need external and internal controls on government. “The constant aim is to divide and arrange the several offices in such a manner as that each be a check on the other – that the private interest of every individual may be a sentinel over the public rights.” Checks and balances Separation of powers ○ Montesquieu Legislative power = the power to make laws Executive power = the power to enforce laws Judicial power = the power to interpret laws No one person or one group should exercise all three types of power. Otherwise, it would be a threat to individual liberty. Thus, it is essential that powers are divided. ○ Each branch of government should be independent of the other branches. How? The members of each branch have as little as possible to do with the selection of the members of the other branches. Congress: Members of the House are chosen by the people. In the original Constitution, state legislatures selected senators. President: Selected by an electoral college. Overlapping authority - No one branch decides important policy decisions alone. It requires cooperation among the branches. Military Power ○ The president is commander in chief. ○ Congress has sole authority to declare war, “raise and support armies,” and to “provide and maintain a navy.” Diplomatic Power ○ The president negotiates treaties. ○ The Senate must ratify treaties by a two thirds vote. Appointment Power (Supreme Court judges, ambassadors, agency heads) ○ The president makes appointments. ○ Congress must confirm the appointment. Budget ○ OMB prepares the agency budget ○ Congress passes the budget Passing a bill ○ US Constitution ○ Article 1. Legislative Branch Madison believed that the legislative branch should be the most powerful among all branches of government. ○ People vote for the members of the House (and the Senate after the 17 th Amendment) It directly represents the people It represents local issues --- the president works for the interests of the nation as a whole, but the members of Congress work for their particular district. Madison feared that the legislative branch would be too powerful, so he suggested dividing Congress into two chambers People directly vote for the members of the House of Representatives ○ 435 members ○ Number of representatives for a state is based on that state’s population ○ 2-year terms ○ The Leader of the House is the Speaker. ○ Voted by the people The Senate was indirectly voted by the state legislatures ○ 100 members ○ Two senators per state ○ 6-year terms ○ Leader of the Senate is the Vice President of the United States. ○ Voted by the state legislatures (before the 17 th Amendment) Power of Congress 1. Raise and collect federal taxes 2. Borrow money 3. Regulate commerce 4. Set rules for naturalization and bankruptcy 5. Coin money 6. Provide punishment for counterfeiting 7. Establish post offices and postal roads 8. Promote copyright laws 9. Establish a court system 10. Punish crimes at sea 17. Run Washington D.C and other federal properties 18. Elastic clause --- to make all laws necessary and proper War powers ○ 11. To declare war ○ 12. Raise and support armies ○ 13. To provide and maintain a navy ○ 14. To make laws governing land and naval forces ○ 15. To provide for summoning the militia to executive federal laws, suppress uprisings, and repel invasions ○ 16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia and governing it when in the service of the Union Article 2. Executive Branch ○ ○ President and Vice President are elected to 4 year terms. Qualifications At least 35 years old 14 years resident of the US Natural born citizen Elected by electoral college Important powers Commander-in-Chief Grant pardons Make treaties Appoint federal offices Ensure laws are executed Important court case Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co vs. Sawyer Article 3. Judicial Branch Supreme Court judges serve for life unless impeached. (Tenure) Judicial power rests with US Supreme Court and other courts created by Congress Important powers Decides cases of Constitutional law and federal law Cases involving ambassadors go straight to Supreme Court Judicial Review (1803 — Marbury vs. Madison) Important court case US vs. Alvarez (2012) ○ Stolen Valor Act (2005) was ruled unconstitutional due to First Amendment (freedom of speech) Checks & Balances Legislative check Checks on the Executive ○ Impeachment power (House) ○ Trial of impeachments (Senate) ○ Selection of the President (House) and Vice President (Senate) in the case of no majority of electoral votes ○ May override Presidential vetoes ○ Senate approves departmental appointments ○ Senate approves treaties and ambassadors ○ Approval of replacement Vice President ○ Power to declare war ○ Power to enact taxes and allocate funds ○ President must, from time-to-time, deliver a State of the Union address Checks on the Judiciary ○ Senate approves federal judges ○ Impeachment power (House) ○ Trial of impeachments (Senate) ○ Power to initiate constitutional amendments ○ Power to set courts inferior to the Supreme Court ○ Power to set jurisdiction of courts ○ Power to alter the size of the Supreme Court Checks on itself ○ Composed of 535 members ○ Bills must be passed by both houses of Congress ○ House must be originate revenue bills ○ Neither house may adjutant for more than 3 days without the consent of the other house Executive check Checks on the Legislature ○ Veto power ○ Vice President is President of the Senate ○ Commander in chief of the military ○ Recess appointments ○ Emergency calling into session of one or both houses of Congress ○ May force adjournment when both houses cannot agree on adjournment ○ Compensation cannot be diminished Checks on the Judiciary ○ Power to appoint judges ○ Pardon power Checks on itself ○ Vice President and Cabinet can vote that the President is unable to discharge his duties ○ ○ ○ Agencies have inspector generals Protections for whistleblowers and other employee rights, including the right to sue their employers (United States Office of Special Counsel (OSC)) Overhead offices that perform functions such as budget review and executive, personnel administration, and internal audit. Professional standards ○ Judicial check Checks on the Legislature ○ Judicial review ○ Seats are held on good behavior ○ Compensation cannot be diminished Checks on the Executive ○ Judicial review ○ The Chief Justice sits as President of the Senate during presidential impeachment. Checks on itself ○ Multi-tiered judiciary Pros Can stop a person or a group of people from dominating. If one branch goes too far, other branches can put a check on it. Nothing too radical will likely become a law immediately. President Trump had a Republican-controlled Congress for the first two years of his presidency, but it does not mean that he could do whatever he wanted. President Trump & Travel Ban (2017) ○ Executive Order Protecting the Nation from Foreign Terrorist Entry into the United States. ○ Jan 27, 2017: President Trump signed an executive order which immediately barred entry into the U.S for the citizens of seven countries. ○ Checks from the judicial branch ○ ○ Cons Jan 28, 2017: A federal judge in NY issued an emergency order blocking the executive order for those who have valid visa or who had already completed a refugee application Feb. 3 2017: Judge James Robart of Federal District Court in Seattle issued a temporary block of the ban Feb. 9 2017: The travel ban’s suspension was upheld by the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit in a unanimous decision. The Supreme Court upheld the travel ban. "The proclamation is squarely within the scope of presidential authority," “The sole prerequisite set forth in [federal law] is that the President find that the entry of the covered aliens would be detrimental to the interests of the United States. The President has undoubtedly fulfilled that requirement here,” Inefficiency ○ Gridlock ○ When Congress and the President, or the House and the Senate cannot agree on an issue, it takes a long time to reach a policy outcome. Sometimes, nothing gets done. ○ The situation is usually worse during the divided government when one party controls the executive branch while another party controls one or both houses of the legislative branch. President and Congress When president acts pursuant to Congressional authorisation—very powerful When president acts in absence of or denial of Congressional authority—uncertain When president acts against expressed or implied will of Congress—weakest Constitution and the Bureaucracy No word “bureaucracy” in the Constitution Nothing for budget, personnel, planning, public servants, or other concepts of public administration. Is public bureaucracy constitutional? No details about how to create, organize, or manage the bureaucracy. History of Federal Agency ○ At first, there was nothing but postal offices. ○ The first federal agency, the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), was created in 1887. ○ Beginning with the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) in 1914, Congress has created numerous other agencies. Is federal bureaucracy constitutional? ○ “All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States.” “Necessary-and-proper” clause ○ The Congress shall have power “[t]o make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers … in any Department or Officer thereof.” To establish Post Offices and post Roads (Art. I, Section 8, Clause 7) “The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America.” (Art. II, sec. 1) Art. II, sec. 3 “take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed” ○ Implies oversight and coordination responsibilities—through appointment powers, unitarily filling vacancies, executive orders. Legislative power (Congress) Creation of agencies Enabling legislation is required to create a agency. The legislation specifies the purpose and role of the agency. It also specifies organization of the agency. By creating agencies, Congress delegates some of its powers to the agency. Budget Power of the Purse: Congress must authorize agency budget ○ If agencies do not perform well, it can cut agency budget “No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence of Appropriations made by Law; and a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be published from time to time.” (Article I, section 9, clause 7) Committee hearings Oversight hearings ○ Oversight of the executive branch—specifically the review, monitoring, and supervision of the implementation of public policy. ○ Review ongoing programs and agencies ○ Investigate a program that is being poorly administered ○ Agency is unresponsive to the panel Investigative hearings ○ Allegations of wrongdoing by public officials acting in their official capacity ○ Confrontational and adversarial Support Offices Congressional Research Service (CRS) is the public policy research arm of Congress. CRS staff conduct briefings on specific policy issues, arrange regular educational seminars on a variety of legislative topics, produce reports on current legislative issues, deliver expert testimony ○ before congressional committees, and prepare customized written analyses in response to specific inquiries. Congressional Budget Office (CBO) estimates the costs of bills approved by congressional committees (other than the appropriation committees). Government Accountability Office (GAO) assists in congressional oversight by evaluating the performance of government policies and programs. GAO also conducts financial and management audits and makes recommendations for corrective legislation and actions Executive power (President) Congress has delegated president authority in… BUDGETING PERSONNEL POLICY AND ADMINISTRATION AGENCY ORGANIZATION AND DESIGN Executive Office of the President White House Office (WHO)– promotes the president’s policy agenda w/in the agencies, coordinates activities, generates policy, resolves conflicts among appointees Office of Management and Budget (OMB)– plays major role in formulating fed budget; supervises agency spending, rulemaking, policy, and regulatory initiatives Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs (OIRA) – Key regulatory oversight office in OMB National Security Council (NSC)– advises president on coordination and integration of domestic, foreign, and military policy Political appointees As much as 7,000 total Only 800 contingent on Senate confirmation President layers unilateral appointments (SES, Schedule C’s, Executive Exceptions) in agencies that are not aligned with his preferences Can be destabilizing or even disruptive to program administration by the career civil service President Trump’s first EPA administrator Scott Pruitt ○ Before the appointment, Pruitt had sued the EPA 13 times ○ He supported abolishing the EPA ○ He tried to roll back many of EPA regulations ○ Staple of presidential efforts to exercise authority over administrative agencies and processes ○ Trump has signed roughly 4.6 executive orders in each month of his presidency (or 219 in four years). His predecessor, Barack Obama, signed 276 executive orders in his eight years in office, or roughly 2.9 per month. George W. Bush signed 291 orders, or slightly more than 3 per month during his two terms in office. ○ Biden has signed 25 EOs in his first TWO WEEKS! (Most overturning Trump’s EOs) ○ ○ Used to reorganize agencies, require agencies to pay attention to particular values (e.g., federalism, ethics, customer service, cost-benefit analysis, federal pay rates, professional training) ○ May be based on president’s assertion of Article II authority ○ Can be challenged in Courts and Congress may overturn them specifically by law; still President gets first-mover advantage Horizontal separation of powers Lecture 6 - Liberalism Liberalism emphasizes on RIGHTS. “Give me liberty or give me death” — Patrick Henry Declaration of Independence ○ “We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” Liberal theory of citizenship ○ Individual citizens act rationally to advance their own interests. People are reasonable and fair-minded. Liberty entails individuals being able to make choices through the courses of their lives Protect individuals by leaving them unhindered in pursuit of their interests ○ The role of the state is to protect citizens in the exercise of their rights. Institutions and legal systems are essential to protect individual freedoms from interference by other individuals as well as the authorities. State power should be limited and dispersed. Place little emphasis on civic virtue or education for citizenship because character formation runs the risk of coercion. ○ Citizenship is a relatively formal legal status. Granting each individual the same formal rights ○ Exercising rights is seen as the choice of citizens. All citizens have an equal right (but not obligation) to take part in. Voting or participation may be moral, but not generally as legal obligation. Close to the concept of duty-based citizenship --- obeying the law, paying taxes, serving juries, and other duties that do not affect the character or identity of the individual. Citizenship and the Constitution ○ Citizens have a duty to support and defend the Constitution. The Oath of Allegiance to the United States; I hereby declare, on oath, that I will support and defend the Constitution and the laws of the United States of America against all enemies, foreign and domestic; that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the same ○ We the people: people of the United States 14th Amendment “All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside.” Birthright citizenship Naturalization ○ US citizens can Vote in elections Run for public office Get federal government jobs (permanent residents may get employed by state and local governments) You have to be a natural born citizen to run for the presidency. ○ Undemocratic elements in the original Constitution Institutional setting Electoral College system Choosing Senators Equal Representation in the Senate Age requirements to run for offices Membership Slavery Suffrage Constitutional Amendments on Membership & Political Rights ○ 13th: Abolished slavery ○ 15th : Rights to vote regardless of race, color, or previous servitude 19th : Right to vote for women ○ 24th : Prohibits poll taxes for voting ○ 26th : Lowers voting age to 18 Civil rights in the Constitution ○ Many people were worried that the federal government would gain too much power if they ratified the Constitution. In order to put limits on the federal government and to protect individual liberty, the Bill of Rights were included. The first ten Amendments to the Constitution Defines the rights and liberty of citizens Imposes limitations on what government can and cannot do to individuals ○ Bill of rights 1. Freedom of religion, speech, and the press; rights of assembly and petition 2. Right to bear arms 3. Housing of soldiers 4. No unreasonable search and seizures 5. Rights in criminal cases 6. Rights to a fair trial 7. Rights in civil cases 8. Bails, fines, and punishments (no cruel and unusual punishments) 9. Rights retained by the people 10. Powers retained by the states and the people ○ Reconstruction Era Amendments 13. Abolished slavery 14. Due process and equal protection under the law 15. Rights to vote regardless of race, color, or previous servitude Judicial review ○ The power of a court to interpret both the provisions of the Constitution and the provisions of a law. ○ The court can declare the law unconstitutional, null and void if it judges the law to be incompatible with the Constitution. ○ The interpretation may change with the times, as the court makes decisions on a case-by-case basis. ○ Judicial activism Judges shape public policies through their rulings Constitution guidelines are vague and do not provide specific direction, so it needs to be interpreted Loose constructionists – see the Constitution as a living document. It is meant to meet the changes of a society over time to make it effective Tends to be liberal??? Warren Court (1954-1969) and Burger Court (1969-1986) ○ Judicial restraint Believes that the court should stay out of policymaking and legislating Defer to the legislative and executive branches rather than asserting their own view Strict constructionists --- see, read, and interpret the Constitution as it was written in 1787 Tends to be conservative??? Rehnquist Court (1986-2005) and Roberts Court (2005-Present) Freedom of speech (First Amendment) ○ The Ohio law violated Brandenburg's right to free speech. ○ Texas maintains direct control over the messages on its specialty plates. License plates convey messages (government speech) ○ Curfew laws are unconstitutional because many protests and assembly occur late at night ○ Distribution of obscene materials is unconstitutional (nudity is okay) “whether to the average person, applying contemporary community standards, the dominant theme of the material taken as a whole appeals to prurient interest.” “I know it when I see it” (Justice Stewart) ○ Defamatory speech (libel & slander) is not protected by the First Amendment When a person publishes a false and unprivileged statement about an individual that seriously harms that person's reputation. ○ “Deliberate lies" could not be punished if made against the government and “public figures” ○ Posting threats on social media does not constitute “true threat.” ○ Schools must be able to set high standards for student speech disseminated under their auspices, and that schools retained the right to refuse to sponsor speech that was "inconsistent with 'the shared values of a civilized social order.’ Equal Protection Clause (Fourteenth Amendment) ○ Universities can use race as a factor in admission But it cannot give extra points to racial minorities or set racial quota Currently being revisited (2022) ○ Right to marriage: marriage is one of the vital rights essential to the orderly pursuit of happiness of free men Obergefell v. Hodges (2015): same-sex marriage is constitutional ○ Buttons do not impose prejudice on juries, so they do not deprive the defendant of his Sixth Amendment right to an impartial jury. ○ Fourth Amendment's prohibition on unreasonable searches and seizures applies to public school officials, but they may conduct reasonable warrantless searches of students under their authority. ○ When a vehicle is stopped at a traffic stop, the passenger as well as the driver is seized within the meaning of the Fourth Amendment. ○ Right to privacy (right to be left alone): together, the First, Third, Fourth, and Ninth Amendments create the right to privacy in marital relations. Roe v. Wade in 1972 firmly established the right to privacy as fundamental, and required that any governmental infringement of that right to be justified by a compelling state interest. Recent decisions may undermine the concept of “compelling state interest” Lecture 7 - Republicanism Strong emphasis on participation Republicanism ○ A citizen identifies with the political community to which he or she belongs. The ideal of civic self-rule and self-government Call for a more active citizenry and more extensive popular involvement. Individuals have an obligation to participate in communal affairs. ○ Discovering common good through deliberation A citizenship body can, through open discussion and political debates, reach a substantial degree of consensus on issues of common concern. Based on the consensus, citizens take an active role in shaping the future direction. ○ Small homogenous society with common traditions Common civic identity, shaped by a common public culture. Citizens are ‘with’ others rather than being either for or against them. ○ Education is central to citizenship People experience a natural tension between particular and common interests. Commitment to the common good is not guaranteed. Citizen participation ○ ○ ○ Ordinary people having influence on a decision-making process. The process of exercising power on decision making by non-expert citizens. Cunningham (1972) 1) Ordinary people, or common amateurs 2) The exercise of power by these people, who lead their community to think and act as they do 3) Decisions involving significant and substantial choices related to the affairs of the community. 5 questions ○ Who participates? How wide, deep, and diverse the pool of citizen participants is? Participation requires undue burdens on citizens. ○ Location, duration, required time and resource investment ○ Groups that are needed to be heard the most may not choose to participate. Usually the number of citizens involved is limited. ○ Citizens who get involved are usually older, educated, interested in politics, and engaged in community affairs. ○ They tend to have strong opinions that can be more extreme than others’. ○ Who initiates? Who brings up citizen participation? Who needs it? Citizens Government Interest groups Nonprofits Media ○ When to participate? Which stage of the policy process do citizens get involved in? Policy creation: citizens enter into a dialogue that shapes policy content and to whom the policy is directed. Policy implementation: citizens influence the way policies are eventually put into practise by administrative bureaucracies. Policy evaluation: citizens provide feedback to policies so that future policies can be improved. ○ ○ ○ Where does it take place? Citizens participation is the most effective at the local level. At state and federal levels, it is usually interest groups rather than individual citizens that participate in participatory platforms. How are citizens involved? How much power do citizens have? When citizens have little or no decision-making power, citizen participation is merely symbolic, used as a tool for legitimizing government policies. When citizens have dominant decision-making authority, citizen participation empowers the people. More participation is not always better; under some circumstances, limited citizen participation can be more beneficial. Public participation 5 pillars Inform Consult Involve Collaborate Empower Participatory budgeting (Collaboration) ○ Definition ○ ○ A democratic process in which community members directly decide how to spend part of a public budget. Citizens present their demands and priorities. Influence budget allocations through discussions and negotiations. Case study: Porto Alegre, Brazil Previously impoverished region. Since 1989, as many as 50,000 people have decided how to allocate as much as 20% of the city budget. With the introduction of participatory budgeting, the poor could put forth their demands. Provision of public services shifted from the culture of clientélisme (serving a selected few). Result: the quality of life for citizens escalated. (Sewer and water connections increased to 97%; new public housing units increased; health and education budget increased.) Case study: USC Budget: 4.3 billion USD ○ Idea ranking tool template Need-ness Feasibility Equity Empowerment ○ Initiatives and referendums (state and local levels) Initiative: citizens bypass their state legislature to make laws; voters put a proposed law on the ballot for public approval. Referendum: citizens vote whether to approve or reject a recently passed law. Similar to initiatives, voters sign a petition to get the measure on the next ballot, but popular referendums differ in that the law in question has already passed in the state legislature. ○ Recall elections (state and local levels) When an elected official does not act in the interest or his constituency, he/she can be removed from office before the term is over through a direct vote. Ostracism in the ancient Athenian democracy. Provide a check on the sovereign power of elected officials. Only applicable to state and local elected officials in 18 states. Ideal conditions of citizen participation ○ High-benefit indicators The issue is gridlocked and a citizen mandate is needed to break the gridlock. Hostility toward government entities is high, and the agency seeks validation from community members to successfully implement policy. Community representatives with particularly strong influence are willing to serve as representatives. The group facilitator has credibility with all representatives. The issue is of high interest to stakeholders and may even be considered at “crisis stage” if actions are not changed. ○ Low-cost indicators Citizens readily volunteer for projects that benefit the entire community. Key stakeholders are not too geographically dispersed; participants can easily reach meetings. Citizens have enough income to attend meetings without harming their ability to provide for their families. The community is homogenous, so the group requires fewer representatives of interest groups; smaller groups speed decision making. The topic does not require a representative to master complex technical information quickly. Non-ideal conditions for citizen participation ○ High-cost indicators An acquiescent public, reluctant to get involved in what is considered the job of government employee Geographically large region or other barriers (such as heavy traffic) that make regular face-to-face meetings difficult. Many competing factions and socioeconomic groups Low-income residents are key stakeholders that should be included, but they cannot be present because of work and family responsibilities. Complex technical knowledge is required before participants can make decisions. The public does not recognize the issue under consideration as a problem. Potential competing policy alternatives are not familiar to the public. ○ Low-benefit indicators The public is generally not hostile toward government entities. The agency has had prior success in implementing policy without citizen participation (the voting process is sufficient to guide policy-making behavior) The population is large, making it difficult for involved stakeholders to influence a significant portion of the population. The decisions of the group are likely to be ignored, no matter how much effort goes into their formation (the group does not have authority to make policy decisions). The decisions of the group are likely to be the same decisions produced by the government entity. Advantages of citizen participation ○ Disadvantages of citizen participation ○ Lecture 8 - Communitarianism Criticism of liberalism ○ Liberals have an overly individualistic conception of the self. They believe that ‘men are self-sufficient outside of society’. ○ Liberals argue that citizens may fundamentally disagree about what the good is, so they deny the existence of the common good. ○ Liberals focus on the rights people hold: they fail to attend to the social conditions under which these rights can be exercised. ○ To liberals, an individual's freedom to make a choice is important. However, people aren’t born with the capacity to choose: it must be developed. Communitarianism ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ An individual’s sense of identity is produced only through relations with others in the community. People are attached to their communities. Our identities are defined to some extent by the community of which we are a part. They are shaped by certain praises in our community. We have a range of moral and political obligations to defend the community values. Social institutions constantly reinforce what is acceptable and unacceptable to the community. Examples Family Neighborhood School Religious organizations Clubs Associations Communitarianism is a shared concern for the common good. Community comes before self. Within their community, people feel morally bound to each other. The preservation of the community is essential for the flourishing of individuals and of societies. There is a high emphasis on public service and the priotiation of the common good over the pursuit of individual interests. All citizens in a community should accept a collective responsibility. “Ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country.”—Ronald Reagan. “We will make America great again”—Donald Trump Community norms and values are more important than laws. Social norms and values determine the success of policy implementation because informal social controls are vastly superior to state coercion. Thus, the government should be directed towards the advancement of community well-being, and not towards individual liberty as a value conceived independently of our nature as communal beings. Criticisms of communitarianism Communities use their moral voice to oppress people School segregation Marriage Redlining Communities are authoritarian by nature, and force people to conform. Communities exclude those who do not belong to them. Dark side of social capital Communication values (Gardener) A common goal/shared vision Core values that set expectations Cooperation among members Strong level of participation Affirming one another through a shared history Shared governance to maintain order ○ Former President Trump’s message to new citizens “All Americans are your brothers and sisters.” Welcome to the “national family” Ours become yours (now you share our culture, history, and tradition) Emphasis on duty and obligation rather than rights. Everyone has to work to keep American safe, strong, and free. Citizens have to teach American values to others. Citizens have to live up to the American standards. Volunteering that changed America ○ Benjamin Franklin developed the first volunteer firehouse in 1736, an idea that has become the country’s norm, as ○ more than 70% of all firefighters today are volunteers. ○ During the Revolutionary War, patriotic citizens volunteered to organize boycotts against British imports and raise funds for the war efforts, and of course there were the famous “minute men,” who were a volunteer militia. ○ It wasn’t until the Great Awakening in the 19th century that formal charitable organizations started cropping up. Inspired by religious revival, people became more aware of the disadvantaged, and the YMCA, American Red ○ Cross and the United Way were all born in response. ○ Volunteers also played an important role in the Civil War, as groups such as Ladies’ Aid Societies were created to make bandages, shirts, towels, bedclothes, uniforms and tents. ○ The 20th century was when mainstream volunteerism really began to flourish, shaping the volunteer and nonprofit organizations that we recognize today. The Rotary Club, Kiwanis and the Lions Club were all established within the first few decades of the 1900s. ○ One of the first nationwide efforts to coordinate volunteers was in response to the Great Depression, including work by Volunteers of America. The first Volunteer Bureau was founded in Minneapolis, MN in 1919 and became part of the Volunteer Center National Network, which today reaches 170 million people in thousands of cities across the nation. ○ During World War II, volunteers were active in the military and on the home front. Thousands of volunteer offices took part in coordinating volunteers in collecting supplies, entertaining soldiers on leave and caring for the injured. After the war, major developments including the Peace Corps and President Lyndon B Johnson’s “War on Poverty” in 1964 started the expansion of volunteer opportunities that continues today. Volunteering statistic in America ○ In 2018 volunteering was around 20% higher than in 2016, as there were approximately 77.3 million Americans who volunteered their time to local and national causes, producing an estimated $167 billion in value. ○ Eighty-one percent of Americans say they donated money to charity in 2021, up from 73 percent a year earlier, according to a new Gallup poll. ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ However, the share of Americans who say they volunteered declined from 58 percent to 56 percent. The rate of volunteering has steadily declined since 2013, when it peaked at 65 percent. An estimated 23.2 percent of Americans or more than 60.7 million people formally volunteered with organizations between September 2020 and 2021. In total, these volunteers served an estimated 4.1 billion hours with an economic value of $122.9 billion. 1. Only 55% of nonprofits assess volunteer impact. (All nonprofits should be!) 2. One out of four Americans volunteer, two out of three Americans help their neighbor according to a study performed by The Corporation for National & Community Service. 3. Individuals between the ages of 35 and 54 are the most likely to volunteer their time according to The Bureau of Labor Statistics. 4. Volunteers are worth on average $28.54 an hour according to an Independent Sector Study. 5. Volunteers are almost twice as likely to donate to a charity than those that don’t volunteer according to The Corporation for National & Community Service. 6. San Jose, CA is ranked #1 for recruiting volunteers who are millennials. 7. Volunteerism has a value of over $184 billion dollars 8. Volunteerism improves health by strengthening the body, improving mood, and lessening stress in participants. 9. Those who volunteer regularly have a 27% better chance of gaining employment. 10. 60% of hiring managers see the act of volunteerism as a valuable asset when making recruitment decisions according to a study performed by CareerBuilder. 11. According to a report from Blackbaud #GivingTuesday, 2017 processed more than $60.9 million from over 7,200 organizations (not bad for a single day). 12. Volunteers under the age of 24 accounts for 22.6% of all volunteers. 13. Benjamin Franklin started The Union Fire Company, in 1736, the first volunteer-run firehouse worldwide. 14. Aristotle (born: 384 BC) once said: “the essence of life is to serve others and do good.” 15. 4% of college graduates, 25 years or older, volunteer each year. 16. Volunteers, on average, spend 50 hours per year donating their time to the greater good. 17. Over 71% of volunteers work with only one organization each year. 18. 67% of people found volunteer opportunities online in 2014 vs 34% in 2006. 19. A study by Deloitte found that 61% of millennials who rarely or never volunteer still consider a company’s commitment to the community when making a decision on a potential job. 20. 92% of human resource executives agree that contributing to a nonprofit can improve an employee's leadership skills. 21. In 2014, 39% of 12th-grade students reported that they volunteered at least once per month according to findings from Child Trends. 22. There are more than 1.8 million active nonprofits in the United States alone. ○ 23. Women currently volunteer more than men (by about 6% more) according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics. ○ 24. Volunteers are 66% more likely to donate financially to the organization they support than those who do not volunteer their time. ○ 25. Food preparation and distribution was the most reported volunteer activity representing 11.3% in 2015. ○ 26. 77% of nonprofits believe that skilled volunteers could improve their organizations business practices (Deloitte Impact Survey) ○ 27. 35% of volunteers do so to socialize with others in the community. (Sterling Volunteers) ○ 28. 66% of volunteers give their time to improve their community, and 83% do so to contribute to a cause they care about. (Sterling Volunteers) ○ 29. According to an AmeriCorps report, people who volunteer over 100 hours a year are some of the healthiest people in the U.S. ○ 30. 28.2% of Millennials volunteer each year. ○ 31. 30.7% of Baby Boomers volunteer each year. ○ 32. 24.8% of Silent Generation Americans volunteer each year. ○ 33. 39.9% of parents volunteer each year. ○ 34. Utah has the highest rate of volunteers in America (51%) ○ 35. 7% of nonprofits will close their doors forever due to the economic impacts of COVID-19. ○ 36. According to LinkedIn, response to the COVID-19 pandemic added more than 110,000 volunteer activities per month, double the rate of 2017. ○ 37. Volunteering decreases the likelihood of high blood pressure development by 40%. ○ 38. Fundraising for an event is the most common type of volunteer role in the United States. ○ 39. 70% of corporate volunteers believe volunteerism boosts morale more than company mixers. ○ 40. 96% of volunteers reported the action enriched their sense of purpose in life. Civic engagement ○ The process of helping people be active participants in building and strengthening their communities. ○ Civic engagement means working to make a difference in the civic life of our communities and developing the combination of knowledge, skills, values, and motivation to make that difference. It means promoting the quality of life in a community, through both political and non-political processes. ○ A morally and civically responsible individual recognises himself or herself as a member of a large social fabric and therefore considers social problems to be at least partly his or her own; such an individual is willing to see the moral and civic dimensions of issues, to make and justify informed moral and civic judgements, and to take action when appropriate. Neighborhood watch Social capital (REFER BACK TO PUTNAM) ○ The Concept of "Social Capital" ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ Social capital theory suggests that social networks have value, affecting the productivity of individuals and groups. Social capital refers to connections among individuals and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them. The term "social capital" was independently invented at least six times over the twentieth century, each time to call attention to the ways in which our lives are made more productive by social ties. Social Capital and Its Individual and Collective Aspects Individual and Collective Aspects of Social Capital Individuals form connections that benefit their own interests, such as job opportunities and companionship. Social capital can have "externalities" that affect the wider community, affecting not all costs and benefits to the person making the contact. Even a poorly connected individual may derive some benefits from living in a well-connected community. Social Capital as a "Private Good" and a "Public Good" Investment in social capital can be both a "private good" and a "public good." Some benefits go to bystanders, while some benefit redounds to the immediate interest of the person making the investment. Importance of Social Connections for Rules of Conduct Social connections involve mutual obligations and foster norms of reciprocity. A society characterized by generalized reciprocity is more efficient than a distrustful society. Trustworthiness lubricates social life, and frequent interaction among a diverse set of people tends to produce a norm of generalized reciprocity. Density of Social Capital Social networks and norms of reciprocity can facilitate cooperation for mutual benefit. When economic and political dealing is embedded in dense networks of social interaction, incentives for opportunism and malfeasance are reduced. Dense social ties facilitate gossip and other valuable ways of cultivating reputation, an essential foundation for trust in a complex society. Understanding Social Capital and Its Impact The Concept of Social Capital Social capital, like community, can be used for both pro-social and antisocial purposes. Examples include Timothy McVeigh's bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building and urban gangs exploiting it for antisocial ends. The positive consequences of social capital, such as mutual support, cooperation, trust, and institutional effectiveness, can be maximized while the negative manifestations like sectarianism, ethnocentrism, and corruption are minimized. Different Forms of Social Capital ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ Some forms involve repeated, intensive, multistranded networks, while others are episodic, single-stranded, and anonymous. Forms of social capital can be formally organized, informal, or serve both public and private ends. Bonding and Bridging Social Capital Bonding social capital reinforces exclusive identities and homogeneous groups, while bridging social capital encompasses people across diverse social cleavages. Bonding social capital is good for undergirding specific reciprocity and mobilizing solidarity, while bridging social capital is better for linkage to external assets and information diffusion. Both bridging and bonding social capital can have powerfully positive social effects. Bonding and Bridging Social Capital Bonding social capital constitutes a sociological superglue, while bridging social capital provides a sociological WD-40. Both forms can have powerfully positive social effects under certain circumstances. Many groups simultaneously bond along some social dimensions and bridge across others, such as the black church, the Knights of Columbus, and internet chat groups. Understanding the Evolution of Social Capital in America The Concept of Social Capital The concept of social capital is a new term in American intellectual circles, reflecting the ongoing debate between community and individualism. The concept of liberation from ossified community bonds is a recurring theme in American culture, from the Pilgrims' escape from religious convention in the 17th century to the struggle against conformism in Sherwood Anderson's celebration of the struggle against conformism in Winesburg, Ohio. The Role of Individualism in American Myths National myths often exaggerate the role of individual heroes and understate the importance of collective effort. Historian David Hackett Fischer's account of the American Revolution highlights the importance of civic engagement networks in the Middlesex villages. Definition Institutions, relationships, and norms that shape the quality and quantity of a society’s interactions. —World Bank, 2000 Connections among individuals - social networks and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them formed by repeated interactions over time. —Putnam, 2000 3 main components (Putnam) Trust Social norms and obligations Social networks and associations ○ Indicators Membership in associations Services as officers or committee members in organizations Club and church attendance Union memberships Attending exercise classes, health clubs, or league bowling Trust, honesty, and morality Civic education ○ Civics education is critical to foster virtuous citizens Socialization of young generation Education priori does a sense of shared history, shared culture, shared values, and shared identity. ○ The need for civics education is widely understood by educators, but there is no consensus on what to teach and how to teach. Lecture 9 - Local citizenship Multi-level citizenship ○ Neighborhood ○ City ○ County ○ State ○ Country ○ Region ○ World Vertical separation of powers - federalism ○ Founding fathers feared that the central government would be too powerful. They divided government powers horizontally across three different branches of government. Moreover, they divided powers vertically — federal, state, and local governments. ○ 10th Amendment “The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.” Federal-state laws ○ Federal preemption: when a state law and a federal law are in total conflict over a certain issue, a federal law is stronger. Supremacy clause ○ When a state law allows more civil rights to a person than the federal law, the state law prevails. Back to the same-sex marriage, if the federal law doesn’t recognize it, you are legally allowed to do it in a state that does. ○ When a state law imposes certain responsibility rules, the federal law has no jurisdiction over it. So if a federal government has no issue with you riding a bike with no helmet, and a state in which you are riding does, you must follow the state law. ○ Examples Gun Control In Texas, a person with no previous criminal charges can purchase a gun at any store, while in states like California, you need a special license to carry. Marijuana Some states have legalized marijuana recently, either for recreational or medicinal purposes. However, a federal law doesn’t recognize marijuana as a legal substance, therefore all United States residents are legally not allowed to possess or use marijuana. Gambling States like Nevada and Louisiana have legalized casino gambling statewide, while some states prohibit some forms of betting. Also, legal age for gambling can vary between states. Some put the legal limit at 18, others at 21. Local citizenship ○ Generally not a formal status Local entities and pride ○ No closed borders ○ Membership is acquired through residence. Benefits and rights enjoyed by city populations depend only on residence. ○ Multiple citizenship is possible The place you live, work, shop, or spend your leisure time. ○ Theories of citizenship in cities Pluralism - groups, competing interests Liberalism - rights Republicanism - political participation Communitarianism - community solidarity ○ Local politics affect the residents most directly. ○ Strong sense of community. It can be good and bad at the same time. ○ Active citizenship to secure their rights. ○ Citizens form coalitions to increase their voices; such coalitions can change from time to time and from an issue to another issue. ○ Ideal setting for direct citizen participation. ○ Highly engaged citizenship - citizen involvement is visible. ○ Ironically, very low voter turnout for local elections. Right to the city ○ “The right to the city is the right of all inhabitants, present and future, permanent and temporary to use, occupy and produce just, inclusive and sustainable cities, defined as a common good essential to a full and decent life.” — Global Platform for the Right to the City (2016) ○ A city with inclusive economics ○ A sustainable city ○ A city with quality public spaces ○ A city fulfilling its social functions ○ A city of inclusive citizenship ○ A city with enhanced political participation ○ A city free of discrimination ○ A city of gender equality ○ A city with cultural diversity Federal government funding for community development ○ Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) Community Development Block Grant program or CDBG, which includes financial and educational resources for communities in the community development process. ○ Department of Health and Human Services' Office of Community Services Community Economic Development (CED) grant, a grant program offered through the U.S. ○ U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) TIGER or the Transportation Investment Generating Economic Recovery, which is specific to development projects related to transportation. ○ HUD, the DOT, and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) The Sustainable Communities Partnership Neighborhood council ○ City-certified local groups made up of people who live, work, own property or have some other connection to a neighborhood. Neighborhood Council Board Members are elected or selected to their positions by the neighborhoods themselves. They hold regular meetings – at least one every three months. The councils receive public funds of $37,000 each year to support their activities. Neighborhood Councils represent neighborhoods with a minimum population of 20,000 people. Meet with the Mayor to discuss priorities in the annual development of the City budget, prior to its submittal and approval by City Council. Receive advance notice of issues and projects that are important to them and their neighborhoods so they can understand, discuss them, and voice the opinions of the neighborhood to the City before final decisions are made. ○ Issues Community festival Community garden Emergency preparedness Graffiti reduction Holiday toy giveaway Public transportation route Address traffic concerns and increase parking Deliberative democracy ○ Citizen participation + deliberation ○ Goal is to improve collective-decision making. ○ Also called as discursive democracy. ○ ○ ○ Ideal for local policy decision; involves more difficulty for state and federal policies. Citizens convene to express their opinions on a policy issue. Everyone gets a say on the issue. Policy decisions are made based on citizen deliberation. Lecture 10 - Global citizenship Broader community ○ Democratic allies ○ Non-democratic allies ○ Visa free exchange of travel ○ Trade partners ○ Humanity Supranational citizenship ○ Regional citizenship Citizenship beyond the state, but not a world-wide citizenship. It coincides with a supranational entity organized around a collective purpose and having set boundaries. Economic community: the North Africa Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the Common Market of the South (MERCOSUR) Legal citizenship: European Union (EU) Common market with common currency, free movement, employment across the EU, and the legal protection of EU law. Cosmopolitan citizenship ○ “Citizen of the world” Departure from the concept of citizenship based on nation-states. The communitarian approach to the global community: all humanity belongs to one big global community ○ Duties to fellow citizens and duties to the human race Defend a strong sense of collective and individual responsibility for the world as a whole. Natural law governs that everyone is entitled to certain rights (human rights) We have a moral obligation to humanity. ○ Global issues Human rights (sex trafficking, labor exploitation, child abuse) Environment Gender equality Health Disaster management Overpopulation and resource depletion ○ Standards —- BRAINSTORM ○ Constraints Membership There is no tangible community; no common history, language and culture. No compelling reason to pursue the interests of foreigners at the cost of the interests of co-nationals. Rights Universal ethic code does not exist Different views of moral responsibility and social causality. Only ambiguous agreement on what human rights are and how to protect them. It depends only on charitable actions; no enforcement measures. Participation No representation or participation in politics. Cosmopolitan citizenship is LEGAL citizenship Emphasis on rights rather than participation Cosmopolitan citizenship emphasizes moral responsibility to help the world’s poor and oppressed. Human rights International courts International treaties and alliances Cosmopolitan citizenship is more of an ideal than a reality No world political authority to enforce international law and international court rulings No political participation International Non-governmental Organizations (INGOs) ○ United Nations World Health Organization: health UNESCO: culture United Nations Security Council: global security ○ World Trade Organization ○ International Monetary Fund ○ Amnesty International ○ Greenpeace ○ Red Cross ○ Save the Children International courts ○ UN International Justice Court Established in 1945 To settle, in accordance with international law, legal disputes submitted by States To give advisory opinions on legal questions referred to it by authorized UN organs and specialized agencies. ○ International Criminal Court Established in 1998 Prosecute individuals who are responsible for Genocide War criminals Crimes against humanity Examples of US Federal Agencies for Foreign Aid ○ Spend approximately 1% of federal budget USAID Department of State Peace Corps US African Development Foundation Globalization and counter-terrorism messaging ○ Terrorist groups use social media platforms such as YouTube, Facebook and Twitter to spread extremist views. ○ It became easy for young people to communicate with terrorist group recruiters through social media; the number of homegrown violent extremists has increased. ○ In Germany, the government can limit “hate speech,” which includes terrorist messages; it can force tech companies to censor the messages or delete them without notice. ○ In the United States, the First Amendment makes it difficult to remove those posts because it is difficult to prove that their messages produce “imminent lawless action.” Department of state ○ Boldline/GEC supports organizations and partnerships that innovatively address propaganda and enables public audiences to receive more fact based information. The goal of Boldline/GEC is to build and deploy strategic connections and collaborations aimed at countering propaganda by: a) sourcing innovative technology and approaches to the problems of foreign propaganda and disinformation; b) promoting and facilitating connectivity between the private sector and governments; c) fostering creative partnership models; and d) conceptualizing new combined technological approaches to the problems of foreign propaganda and disinformation. Lecture 11 - Citizen as customers Perceived problems in government ○ Too big ○ Too bureaucratic ○ Too inefficient, ineffective ○ Not accountable ○ Poor contacts with the public ○ Neglect of citizen rights ○ Lack of transparency ○ Corruption Public vs. Private sector ○ Environmental factors; more restrictions Absence of economic markets for outputs; reliance on governmental appropriations for financial resources. Presence of more elaborate and intensive formal, legal constraints on public managers as a result of oversight by legislative branch, executive branch hierarchy and oversight agencies, and courts. Presence of more intensive external political influences. ○ Nature of government work Public managers face stronger expectations for fairness, responsiveness, honesty, openness, and public accountability than do private sector managers. Government activities often have a broader impact and greater symbolic significance Public managers often operate under greater public scrutiny than do private sector managers, from news media, interest groups, and oversight authorities. Government activities are often coercive, monopolistic, or unavoidable ○ Organizational Structure and Management Public organizations are subject to more red tape, more elaborate bureaucratic structures. Greater vagueness, intangibility, or difficulty in measuring goals and performance criteria Public managers have less decision-making autonomy and flexibility Public managers have weaker authority over subordinates and lower levels More frequent turnover of top leaders due to elections and political appointments Public managers and employees perceive greater administrative constraints on the administration of extrinsic incentives such as pay, promotion, and disciplinary action New public management ○ Emerged in the 1980s ○ First in the U.K., New Zealand, United States, and all around the world. ○ In the U.S, the Clinton administration’s National Performance Review adopted the NPM reform ideas to the federal government. ○ Goal: make a government that “works better and costs less.” ○ "Our goal is to make the entire federal government less expensive and more efficient, and to change the culture of our national bureaucracy away from complacency and entitlement toward initiative and empowerment." Re-inventing government ○ Not about WHAT the government should do, but about HOW it should do the work. Places emphasis on policy management and implementation rather than on policy development and design. Core values: economy, efficiency, and effectiveness. ○ Model the best practises used by private sector “Businesslike” government Focus on results Decentralize authority Reduce bureaucracy Promote competition Redefine clients as customers 10 principles of entrepreneurial government (Osborne) ○ 1. Catalytic government (steering rather than rowing) ○ 2. Community-owned government (empowering rather than serving) ○ 3. Competitive government (injecting competition into service delivery) ○ 4. Mission-driven government (transforming rule-driven organizations) ○ 5. Results-oriented government (funding outcomes, not inputs) ○ 6. Customer-driven government (meeting the needs of the customer, not bureaucracy) ○ 7. Enterprising government (earning rather than spending) ○ 8. Anticipatory government (prevention rather than cure) ○ 9. Decentralized government (from hierarchy to participation and teamwork) ○ 10.Market-oriented government (leveraging change through market) Customer-driven government ○ “The Federal Government must be customer-driven. The standard of quality for services provided to the public shall be: Customer Service equal to the best in business.” How can the government serve its customers? ○ 1. Identifying all the customers of an organization "By customer, we do not mean citizen.... A customer receives benefits from a specific service (Gore, pg. 6).” In private sector, those who pay for services receive the services they purchase. In other words, the more you pay, the more you get. Services offered by the government are not intended to benefit those who pay for/experience them directly, but to protect or benefit others; the more you pay, the more other people get. Customer is “an individual or entity who is directly served by a department or agency (Executive Order 12862).” 1) Customer who purchase products and services Pay entrance fee for national parks 2) Customer who request and receive products and services for free Request road repair services 3) Customers who passively or even unknowingly receives products and services Listen to the radio for the National Weather Service ○ 2. Asking customers what they need and expect Develops and uses customer feedback systems Low levels of citizen participation (to consult or to involve) – Citizen survey, contact, interview, councils ○ 3. Providing competitive choices What is needed by the direct recipient of their services? ― Letting customers take public resources to their provider of choice either from public or private providers. “Public agencies to compete for their customers-between offices, with other agencies, and with the private sector" (Gore, p. 44). Survival of the fittest: automatically rewards or punishes services providers for the quality of service they provide ― More innovation; less waste; less political influence Tools: voucher or reimbursement program Example: school vouchers, housing vouchers, health insurance vouchers Customers are empowered by being able to choose among providers of various services. ○ 4. Setting organizational standards of good customer service Executive Order 12862 “Setting Customer Service Standards” (1993) Executive Order 13571 “Streamlining Service Delivery and Improving Customer Service” (2011) Federal government agencies have to publish customer service plans – Customer service standards and expectations – Future plans for customer surveys – Use technology to improve customer services – Streamline agency processes to reduce costs and accelerate delivery (reduce the need for customer calls and inquiries) ○ 5. Planning and measuring performance and customer satisfaction Government Performance and Results Act (1993 & 2010) Objective: “Linking resources to results.” Set goals, measure performance, and report Long-term and short-term performance planning – Long term strategic plans, covering five year horizons – Short term performance plans, covering annual goals to reach the strategic targets GPRA goals should be Important to the agency Quantifiable Result-oriented ○ Outcomes over process ○ Outcomes over outputs ○ Input goals are not acceptable ○ Example: Social Security Administration 2017 Satisfaction rating of 85 for online services 80% satisfaction rating for office and telephone services Improve customer service and convenience by increasing online transactions by 25 million each year (target: 137.0 million) Maintain a high accuracy rate of payments made through the Old-Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance program to minimize improper payments (target: 99.8%) Deliver medical evidence to Veterans Affairs in an average of 5 business days Increase secure access to the public’s data Criticisms of citizen as customers ○ Frederickson (1992) “Citizens are not customers. They are the owners. Customers choose between products presented in the market; citizens decide what is so important that the government will do it at public expense" (p. 13). ○ Replacing democratic values with customer service values Emphasis on efficiency and cost-effectiveness sometimes contradict procedural justice, equity, and fairness ○ Determining who the customers are People with money and power may receive better services Example: Department of Homeland Security charges additional $1410 for I-907 Premium Processing filing fee; Department of Transportation’s Global Entry / TSA-pre program. ○ Deteriorating the quality of public services in long-run Improving public schools vs. providing school choices ○ Cannot be applied to regulatory sector Best for service delivery (water, garbage collection, telecommunication services, and etc.) that we can all agree on what good services are. LA Police Department: Strategic goals ○ 1. Reduce crime and victimization ○ 2. Build community trust and collaboration ○ 3. Improve traffic safety ○ 4. Emphasize preparedness and counter-terrorism ○ 5. Strengthen the public safety workforce ○ 6. Foster employee wellness and satisfaction ○ 7. Mitigate risk and reduce harm ○ 8. Develop innovative sustainability program ○ 9. Drive Accountability and reward creativity ○ 10. Leverage technology to improve performance Lecture 12 - Citizenship and technology E-government ○ The use of information and communication technologies (ICT) as a tool for delivering better government services to the citizens, businesses, and employees. ○ E-government is not about electronics but about government; not about computers & websites but about citizens; not about translating processes but about transforming processes. ○ It is not just about the internet Telephone, fax, mobile Tracking systems Biometrics CCTV Smartcards TV & radio-based delivery of public services Generative artificial intelligence ○ Benefits ○ ○ For citizens One stop shop: cost and time-savings Convenience Certainty in getting services Better quality of life More government transparency Easier access to information More efficient interactions For government agency More efficient services to citizens & businesses ○ Better image ○ Cost-cutting ○ Better targeting of benefits ○ Control of corruption Stages of E-Government Stage 1 - Information dissemination (one-way communication) Publish information about agency programs, events, budgets etc. Stage 2 - Interaction (two-way communication) Establish channels to get questions and comments from citizens Phone, fax, and email Database and search engine Stage 3 - Service and financial transaction Self-service Submit forms online (IRS tax forms, housing voucher application etc.) Online payments (vehicle license renewal, parking violation fee etc.) Stage 4 - Vertical and horizontal integration One stop shopping for citizens One website for all levels of government services within similar functionalities (no need to click individual agency’s website) Stage 5 - Political participation Interactions between citizens Exchange of information and opinions Direct. influence on political processes ○ Online survey and polling ○ Online opinion forums for deliberation ○ Online petition New public management and E-Government Customer-driven government: meeting the needs of the customer, not bureaucracy E-government as a tool to promote new public management values Better service experience for customers Efficiency Cost-effectiveness Convenience ○ ○ ○ Transparency Democracy and E-Government E-government as a tool to encourage direct citizen participation (Stage V) Digital democracy (e-democracy) ○ All adult citizens are presumed to be eligible to participate equally in the proposal, development, and creation of laws Citizen journalism ○ Citizens play an active role in the process of collecting, reporting, analyzing, and disseminating news and information. E-government 2.0 Community-driven It is based on social networks and social media User-generated content and development Citizens, not government, are at the center of data collection More user friendly, more flexible, and more intuitive Collaboration It focuses on citizen collaboration to generate content; sharing, collaboration, co-creation and innovation Openness Data is open to the public for citizens and private sector innovation. Examples Collaborative projects (like Wikipedia) Blogs and microblogs (like Twitter) Content communities (like YouTube) Social networking sites/system (like Facebook) Virtual game worlds (like the World of Warcraft) Virtual social worlds (like Second Life) Challenges Cybersecurity Personal data and privacy Intellectual rights Labor effort (maintaining the system; responding to every cit