Phys Exam 1 Study Guide.docx

Exam 1 Learning Objectives Chapter 1 - Define homeostasis and identify components of negative feedback loops - Describe positive feedback and provide examples - Differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms of homeostasis - Describe the term "Antagonistic Effectors"...

Exam 1 Learning Objectives Chapter 1 - Define homeostasis and identify components of negative feedback loops - Describe positive feedback and provide examples - Differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms of homeostasis - Describe the term "Antagonistic Effectors" - Describe the different types of stem cells - Describe the body fluid compartments Chapter 2 - Describe the structure of an atom and it's components - Define valence electrons and their importance - Define an ion - Distinguish between the different types of bonds - Explain the meaning of the terms polar, nonpolar, hydrophilic and hydrophobic - Identify the characteristics of organic molecules - Identify the different types of macromolecules, including structure and function - Describe prostoglandins and phopholipids - Describe the structure of an amino acid and explain how peptide bonds form - Describe the different order of protein folding - Describe the structure of nucleotides - Describe the differences between DNA and RNA - Explain complementary base pairing Chapter 3 - Generally describe the number of organelles in cells, and cells that could have more or less - Distinguish between the different types of RNA - Describe the flow of genetic information - Define the terms gene, genome, chromosome, and chromatin - Explain complementary base pairing - Explain protein synthesis from DNA: transcription and translation - Describe the Genetic Code - Explain replication of DNA - Describe RNA splicing, including alternative splicing - Describe the cell cycle - Define hypertrophy and hyperplasia - Identify differences between mitosis and meiosis - Explain epigenetics   Chapter 4 - Explain the properties of an enzyme and how enzymes function - Describe the roles of cofactors and coenzymes - Explain the law of mass action - Describe end-product inhibition and rate limiting enzyme - Distinguish between endgergonic and exergonic reactions - Explain how ATP functions as an universal energy carrier - Define oxidation and reduction reactions - Explain the function of NAD and FAD Chapter 5 - Define metabolism, including catabolism and anabolism - Describe the metabolic pathway of glycolysis, how lactic acid is produced, and the significance of the lactic acid pathway - Describe aerobic cell respiration - Describe the location and function of the Kreb's Cycle - Describe the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation - Explain why oxygen is important in the process of aerobic respiration - Compare the fate of pyruvate in aerobic and anaerobic cell respiration - Explain how much ATP is produced in oxidative phosphorylation and where in the pathway it comes from - Describe the role of the coenzymes NADH and FADH - Describe the substrates for gluconeogenesis - Describe the Cori cycle and it's significance - Explain how glucose and glycogen are interconverted - Describe how triglycerides can be used in oxidative phosphorylation - Compare white fat to brown fat - Describe the pathway beta-oxidation and the products it produces - Explain how amino acids can be metabolized for energy, including deamination - Define what a ketone is and how it can be utilized in metabolism - Define essential vs non-essential amino acids Chapter 6 - Describe the intracellular and extracellular compartments of body - Identify the differences between passive and active transport - Describe the composition of the extracellular matrix - Define diffusion and identify factors that influence rate of diffusion - Define osmosis and explain how it relates to osmolarity and osmotic pressure - Define the terms hypotonic, isotonic, and hypertonic - Explain how blood osmolarity is regulated - Describe the characteristics of carrier-mediated transport, and distinguish between simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and active transport - Compare active transport to secondary active transport - Describe the Transport maximum - Explain the action of Na+/K+ ATP pump - Describe transport across epithelial cells - Define paracellular and transcellular transport - Define co-transport and counter transport with regards to Na+ coupled secondary active transport - Compare tight junctions, adherens, and desmosones - Define the resting membrane potential - Explain how the resting membrane potential is generated - Describe the equilibrium potentials for Na+ and K+ - Define excitable tissues - Distinguish between synaptic, endocrine, autocrine, and paracrine regulation - Describe the location of receptors in target cells - Describe different second messengers in a cell including G proteins and cAMP Study Guides **Chapter 1: Introduction to Human Physiology** 1\. Definition and Scope of Physiology - Physiology: The study of how living organisms function, including the physical and chemical processes that occur within the body. - Key Focus: How organs and systems work together to maintain homeostasis. 2\. Levels of Organization in the Human Body - Chemical Level: Atoms and molecules (e.g., water, proteins). - Cellular Level: Cells, the basic unit of life (e.g., muscle cells, nerve cells). - Tissue Level: Groups of cells working together (e.g., epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissues). - Organ Level: Structures composed of two or more types of tissues (e.g., heart, lungs). - System Level: Groups of organs working together (e.g., cardiovascular system, respiratory system). - Organism Level: The whole human body as a complete system. 3\. Homeostasis - Definition: The maintenance of a stable internal environment despite external changes. - Components of Homeostatic Control Systems: - Receptor: Detects changes in the internal environment. - Control Center: Processes the information and determines the appropriate response. - Effector: Executes the response to restore balance. - Examples: Regulation of body temperature, blood pressure, and glucose levels. 4\. Feedback Mechanisms - Negative Feedback: The response reduces the effect of the initial stimulus, maintaining homeostasis (e.g., temperature regulation). - Positive Feedback: The response enhances the original stimulus, moving the system away from its set point (e.g., childbirth contractions). 5\. Anatomy vs. Physiology - Anatomy: The study of the structure of body parts and their relationships. - Physiology: The study of the function of these body parts. 6\. Basic Terms and Concepts - Anatomical Position: Standard reference position for the body (standing, facing forward, arms at sides, palms facing forward). - Directional Terms: Terms used to describe locations and positions (e.g., superior, inferior, anterior, posterior). - Planes of the Body: Sections that divide the body into parts (e.g., sagittal, frontal, transverse). 7\. Importance of Physiology in Medicine - Application: Understanding normal physiological processes helps in diagnosing and treating diseases. - Clinical Relevance: Examples of how disruptions in normal physiology can lead to health problems. **Chapter 2: The Cell** 1\. Cell Theory - Basic Principles: - All living organisms are composed of cells. - The cell is the basic unit of structure and function in organisms. - All cells arise from pre-existing cells. 2\. Cell Structure - Plasma Membrane: - Structure: Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins. - Functions: Protects the cell, controls what enters and exits, and facilitates communication between cells. - Cytoplasm: - Components: Cytosol (fluid), organelles, and inclusions. - Functions: Site of most cellular activities and biochemical reactions. - Nucleus: - Structure: Nuclear envelope with pores, nucleoplasm, chromatin, and nucleolus. - Functions: Stores genetic information, controls cellular activities, and produces ribosomes. 3\. Organelles - Mitochondria: - Function: Powerhouse of the cell, produces ATP through cellular respiration. - Structure: Double membrane with inner folds called cristae. - Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): - Rough ER: Studded with ribosomes; involved in protein synthesis and processing. - Smooth ER: Lacks ribosomes; involved in lipid synthesis and detoxification. - Golgi Apparatus: - Function: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for secretion or delivery to other organelles. - Structure: Stacks of flattened membrane-bound sacs. - Lysosomes: - Function: Contain digestive enzymes to break down waste materials and cellular debris. - Peroxisomes: - Function: Detoxify harmful substances and break down fatty acids. - Ribosomes: - Function: Synthesize proteins; can be free-floating or attached to the rough ER. - Cytoskeleton: - Components: Microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules. - Functions: Provides structural support, aids in cell movement, and facilitates intracellular transport. 4\. Cell Membrane Transport - Passive Transport: - Diffusion: Movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to lower concentration. - Osmosis: Diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane. - Facilitated Diffusion: Movement of molecules through membrane proteins without energy input. - Active Transport: - Primary Active Transport: Uses ATP to move molecules against their concentration gradient (e.g., sodium-potassium pump). - Secondary Active Transport: Uses the energy from primary transport to move other molecules against their gradient. - Endocytosis and Exocytosis: Processes for taking in and expelling large particles or fluids via vesicles. Active transport 5\. Cell Division - Mitosis: - Purpose: Produces two identical daughter cells for growth, repair, and maintenance. - Phases: Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. - Cytokinesis: - Function: Division of the cytoplasm, resulting in two separate cells. - Meiosis: - Purpose: Produces gametes (sperm and eggs) with half the number of chromosomes. - Phases: Includes two rounds of division (Meiosis I and Meiosis II). 6\. Cell Communication - Signal Transduction: - Definition: Process by which a cell responds to external signals through receptors and secondary messengers. - Examples: Hormones, neurotransmitters. **Chapter 3: Tissues** 1\. Introduction to Tissues - Definition of Tissue: A group of cells with similar structure and function that work together to perform specific tasks. - Four Basic Tissue Types: Epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissues. 2\. Epithelial Tissue - General Characteristics: - Cells: Closely packed with minimal extracellular matrix. - Polarity: Apical (top) and basal (bottom) surfaces. - Attachment: Basal surface attached to a basement membrane. - Avascular: Lacks blood vessels; relies on diffusion for nutrient and waste exchange. - Functions: - Protection, absorption, secretion, and filtration. - Types of Epithelial Tissue: - Simple Epithelium: Single layer of cells. - Simple Squamous: Thin, flat cells (e.g., alveoli, blood vessels). - Simple Cuboidal: Cube-shaped cells (e.g., kidney tubules). - Simple Columnar: Tall, column-like cells (e.g., digestive tract). - Stratified Epithelium: Multiple layers of cells. - Stratified Squamous: Several layers, with cells becoming flat at the surface (e.g., skin, oral cavity). - Stratified Cuboidal: Rare, found in ducts of some glands. - Stratified Columnar: Rare, found in some glandular ducts. - Transitional Epithelium: Stretchable tissue found in the bladder and ureters. - Pseudostratified Columnar: Appears layered but is a single layer with varying cell heights (e.g., respiratory tract). 3\. Connective Tissue - General Characteristics: - Cells: Widely spaced with an abundant extracellular matrix. - Functions: Support, protection, and binding of tissues. - Types of Connective Tissue: - Loose Connective Tissue: - Areolar Tissue: Supports and binds tissues, provides elasticity. - Adipose Tissue: Stores fat, insulates, and cushions organs. - Reticular Tissue: Forms supportive framework for organs. - Dense Connective Tissue: - Dense Regular: Collagen fibers are parallel, providing strong attachment (e.g., tendons, ligaments). - Dense Irregular: Collagen fibers are irregularly arranged, providing strength in multiple directions (e.g., dermis of the skin). - Elastic Tissue: Contains elastic fibers for flexibility (e.g., walls of arteries). - Specialized Connective Tissues: - Cartilage: Provides flexible support, lacks blood vessels. - Hyaline Cartilage: Smooth and glassy, found in joints. - Elastic Cartilage: Contains elastic fibers, found in the ear. - Fibrocartilage: Tough, with collagen fibers, found in intervertebral discs. - Bone: Rigid tissue with a matrix of collagen and calcium salts; provides structural support. - Blood: Fluid connective tissue with cells suspended in plasma. 4\. Muscle Tissue - General Characteristics: - Function: Facilitates movement through contraction. - Types of Muscle Tissue: - Skeletal Muscle: Striated, voluntary control, attached to bones. - Cardiac Muscle: Striated, involuntary control, found in the heart. - Smooth Muscle: Non-striated, involuntary control, found in walls of hollow organs (e.g., intestines, blood vessels). 5\. Nervous Tissue - General Characteristics: - Cells: Neurons and supporting cells (neuroglia). - Functions: - Neurons: Conduct electrical impulses, transmit information. - Neuroglia: Support, protect, and nourish neurons. - Components: - Neurons: Consist of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon. - Neuroglia: Various types with different functions (e.g., astrocytes, oligodendrocytes). **Chapter 4: Cell Metabolism** **1. Introduction to Metabolism** - **Metabolism:** The sum of all chemical reactions that occur within the body to maintain life. - **Two Main Categories:** - **Catabolism:** Breakdown of molecules to release energy (e.g., digestion, cellular respiration). - **Anabolism:** Synthesis of molecules, requiring energy input (e.g., protein synthesis, cell growth).  **2. Energy Transfer in Cells** - **ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate):** The primary energy carrier in cells. - **Structure:** Composed of adenine, ribose, and three phosphate groups. - **Function:** Transfers energy by releasing a phosphate group to form ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate). - **Phosphorylation:** The process of adding a phosphate group to a molecule, typically to activate or deactivate it. **3. Cellular Respiration** - **Purpose:** To convert nutrients into ATP through oxidation. - **Stages of Cellular Respiration:** - **Glycolysis:** - **Location:** Cytoplasm. - **Process:** Breakdown of glucose into pyruvate, producing 2 ATP and 2 NADH. Cellular respiration review (article) \| Khan Academy - **Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle):** - **Location:** Mitochondrial matrix. - **Process:** Oxidizes acetyl-CoA to produce NADH, FADH2, and 2 ATP per cycle.  - **Electron Transport Chain (ETC) and Oxidative Phosphorylation:** - **Location:** Inner mitochondrial membrane. - **Process:** Electrons from NADH and FADH2 are transferred through a series of proteins, creating a proton gradient that drives ATP synthesis via ATP synthase. - **End Products:** Approximately 32-34 ATP molecules per glucose molecule, water (from combining electrons with oxygen), and carbon dioxide. Electron Transport Chain and Oxidative Phosphorylation \| Biology Dictionary Cori Cycle  **4. Anaerobic Metabolism** - **Fermentation:** An alternative pathway for ATP production when oxygen is limited. - **Lactic Acid Fermentation:** Converts pyruvate to lactic acid, producing 2 ATP. Occurs in muscle cells during intense exercise. - **Alcoholic Fermentation:** Converts pyruvate to ethanol and carbon dioxide, producing 2 ATP. Occurs in yeast and some bacteria. Fermentation -- Definition, Types, Process, & Equation **5. Metabolic Pathways** - **Glycogenesis:** Formation of glycogen from glucose for storage in liver and muscle cells.  - **Glycogenolysis:** Breakdown of glycogen to release glucose when needed. GLYCOGENOLYSIS \| Physiology & Biochemistry - **Gluconeogenesis:** Production of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources (e.g., amino acids, lactate) in the liver.  Gluconeogenesis, Glycogenesis, Glycogenolysis -- biochemistry - **Lipolysis:** Breakdown of triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acids for energy. - **Lipid Synthesis (Lipogenesis):** Formation of fatty acids and triglycerides from excess glucose or amino acids. **6. Regulation of Metabolism** - **Hormonal Regulation:** - **Insulin:** Promotes glucose uptake and glycogen storage. - **Glucagon:** Stimulates glycogen breakdown and gluconeogenesis. - **Epinephrine (Adrenaline):** Enhances glycogen breakdown and glucose release during stress. - **Enzyme Regulation:** Enzyme activity can be regulated through allosteric interactions, covalent modification, and changes in enzyme concentration. **7. Energy Yield and Efficiency** - **ATP Yield:** Approximately 36-38 ATP molecules are produced per glucose molecule through aerobic respiration. - **Efficiency:** Cellular respiration is a highly efficient process, but some energy is lost as heat. **Chapter 6: The Muscular System** **1. Overview of the Muscular System** - **Muscle Tissue Types:** - **Skeletal Muscle:** Voluntary control, striated, attached to bones. - **Cardiac Muscle:** Involuntary control, striated, found in the heart. - **Smooth Muscle:** Involuntary control, non-striated, found in walls of hollow organs (e.g., intestines, blood vessels). **2. Skeletal Muscle Structure** - **Muscle Fibers:** Individual muscle cells. - **Myofibrils:** Cylindrical structures within muscle fibers, containing myofilaments. - **Myofilaments:** - **Actin (Thin Filaments):** Contains binding sites for myosin. - **Myosin (Thick Filaments):** Contains cross-bridges that interact with actin. - **Sarcomeres:** The basic contractile units of muscle, defined by Z-discs, and consisting of overlapping actin and myosin filaments. - **Muscle Anatomy:** - **Epimysium:** Connective tissue surrounding the entire muscle. - **Perimysium:** Connective tissue surrounding bundles of muscle fibers (fascicles). - **Endomysium:** Connective tissue surrounding individual muscle fibers. **3. Muscle Contraction** - **Sliding Filament Theory:** - **Explanation:** Muscle contraction occurs when actin filaments slide over myosin filaments, shortening the sarcomere. - **Cross-Bridge Cycle:** - **Attachment:** Myosin heads bind to actin forming cross-bridges. - **Power Stroke:** Myosin heads pivot, pulling actin filaments toward the center of the sarcomere. - **Detachment:** ATP binds to myosin, causing it to detach from actin. - **Reactivation:** ATP is hydrolyzed to ADP and inorganic phosphate, re-cocking the myosin head for the next cycle. - **Role of Calcium and ATP:** - **Calcium Ions:** Released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, bind to troponin, allowing myosin to bind to actin. - **ATP:** Provides energy for the power stroke and detachment of myosin heads. **4. Neuromuscular Junction** - **Structure:** The synapse between a motor neuron and a muscle fiber. - **Process:** - **Action Potential:** Travels down the motor neuron, leading to the release of acetylcholine (ACh) into the synaptic cleft. - **ACh Binding:** Binds to receptors on the muscle fiber, causing depolarization and initiation of a muscle action potential. - **Excitation-Contraction Coupling:** The action potential travels along the muscle fiber and triggers the release of calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. **5. Muscle Fiber Types** - **Type I Fibers (Slow-Twitch):** - **Characteristics:** High endurance, slow contraction, rich in mitochondria, and myoglobin. - **Function:** Ideal for prolonged, low-intensity activities (e.g., marathon running). - **Type II Fibers (Fast-Twitch):** - **Characteristics:** Rapid contraction, lower endurance, fewer mitochondria, and less myoglobin. - **Subtypes:** - **Type IIa:** Intermediate fibers with moderate endurance and strength. - **Type IIb:** High strength, low endurance, suited for short bursts of activity (e.g., sprinting). **6. Muscle Contraction Types** - **Isometric Contraction:** Muscle length remains the same while muscle tension increases (e.g., holding a weight steady). - **Isotonic Contraction:** Muscle changes length while maintaining constant tension. - **Concentric Contraction:** Muscle shortens (e.g., lifting a weight). - **Eccentric Contraction:** Muscle lengthens (e.g., lowering a weight). **7. Muscle Metabolism** - **Energy Sources:** - **Creatine Phosphate:** Provides immediate, short-term energy. - **Anaerobic Respiration (Fermentation):** Produces ATP without oxygen, results in lactic acid buildup. - **Aerobic Respiration:** Produces ATP with oxygen, yields more ATP and involves the breakdown of glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids. **8. Muscle Fatigue and Recovery** - **Muscle Fatigue:** Decline in the ability of a muscle to generate force; often due to accumulation of lactic acid, depletion of energy reserves, or failure of neuromuscular transmission. - **Recovery:** Involves the replenishment of energy stores, removal of metabolic byproducts, and repair of muscle tissue.