Philosophy 1st Midsem PDF

**I. PHILOSOPHY** ***[Philosophy]*** **[Etymological]** -- from the Greek words *philos* ***(love)*** and *sophia **(wisdom)*** meaning **"love of wisdom"** **[Definition]** -- science of all things that studies the ultimate causes of things through *[reason]* \- investigates things of the tangi...

**I. PHILOSOPHY** ***[Philosophy]*** **[Etymological]** -- from the Greek words *philos* ***(love)*** and *sophia **(wisdom)*** meaning **"love of wisdom"** **[Definition]** -- science of all things that studies the ultimate causes of things through *[reason]* \- investigates things of the tangible and intangible world( *e. g **God, soul, nature of society, free will*** ) \- studies the *[ultimate principles & causes]* in the broad sense that is distinguished by physical science \- questions transcendental reason that **"science"** can't explain \- uses ***natural cognition, principle of ordinary, moral reason*** \- light of natural reason: *empirical or rational* \- seeks the truth and attain objective of truth \- questions of cosmology (***Where did we come from?**)* **II. HISTORY** **[Pre-Socratic]** **(600 -- 500 BCE)** \- Thales, Anaximander, Heraclitus, Pythagoras \- concluded man to come from water **(Thales)** **[Classic Greek] (400 BCE - 300 BCE)** **PHILOSOPHERS:** ***Socrates*** ; Socratic method, ethical focus ***Plato*** ; Theory of Forms, establishments of Academy ***Aristotle*** ; logic, metaphysics, ethics, politics & natural sciences, **Lyceum** \- Greek society is peaked in civilization \- switched cosmological questions to *[morality]*, *[culture]* & *[tradition]* \- described the concept of ***Hedonism***; bodily or carnal pleasure \- promoted ethics **[Hellenistic]** **(300 BCE -- 200 CE)** -Stoicism and Skepticism **[Roman]** **(200 BCE -- 500 CE)** **PHILOSOPHERS:** ***Cicero*** -- adapted Greek to Roman context ***Seneca*** -- stoic ethics and moral essays ***Marcus Aurelius*** -- reflections in *"Meditations"* ***Augustine of Hippo*** -- Christian philosopher & thought \- Shifted subject to ***Christianity*** \- Roman thought became an improved version of Greek thought **[Medieval]** **(500 -- 1500)** **PHILOSOPHERS:** ***Thomas Aquinas*** -- synthesizes Christian thought with Aristotle's thought in **Summa Theologica** ***Anselm of Canterbury*** -- ontological argument of the existence of God \- power is in the ***Catholic Church*** \- ***God-centeredness***; all answers lead to God \- had put *man* in the center; **Earth** was believed to be the center of the solar system \- the ***"[Death of Science]"*** ; science and practitioners were persecuted **[Renaissance] (1700 -- 1900)** **PHILOSOPHERS:** ***Niccolo Macchiavelli*** -- political science & philosophy ***Francis Bacon*** -- Empericist; scientific method ***John Locke*** -- Empericist; theory of mind and knowledge ***Rene Descartes*** -- Rationalist; Cartesian dualism \- rebirth of **Greek & Roman** \- debate of **Rationalism & Empericism** \- **Rationalism**; knowledge is innate \- **Empericism**; knowledge from experience \- places man at the center **(Anthropocentrism)** **[Modern]** **(1700 -- 1900)** **PHILOSOPHERS:** ***Immanuel Kant*** -- pursued *[Enlightenment]*; critical philosophy, ***"Critique of Pure Reason"*** ***David Hume*** -- skepticism of religion ***Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel*** -- absolute idealism, dialectical method ***Karl Marx*** -- historical materialism, critique of capitalism ***Friedrich Nietzsche*** -- critique of religion, concept of *[Ubermensch]* \- widespread ***monarchy*** \- promulgation of *freedom, liberty* & *power* \- revolution against **colonialism** **[20^th^ Century and Beyond]** **PHILOSOPHERS:** ***Michel Foucault*** -- power, knowledge & society ***Jacques Derrida*** -- deconstruction & language ***Bertrand Russell*** ***Ludwig Wittgenstein*** ***Martin Heidegger*** ***Jean-Paul Sartre*** ***Simone de Beauvoir*** \- focuses on the reason of man's actions and existence \- high skepticism of Lord's morality & man's reason **III. SOCRATES** ***[Socrates]*** \- father of Western philosophy \- philosophy of morality \- criticizes the hedonistic lifestyle and promotes use of *[reason]* & *[morality]* to avoid **carnal happiness** \- played the ***ignorant questioner*** \- against the ideas of the ***Sophists*** ***[Sophists]*** \- teaches subjects of grammar, rhetoric logic and literature \- hired by the wealthy men \- created tension in the city of ***Athens*** \- caused *moral breakdown* **Sophist Philosophy** \- only the rich deserve justice \- only circumstance; no right or wrong \- difference of good & evil can't be known \- **Truth** is based on persuasion of audience \- no absolute morality or distinction of good **Socratic Philosophy** \- there is a **definite** morality \- *[Justice]* is based on equality and fairness \- actions are right if it brings **[true happiness]** \- man is endowed with reason \- *Man's goal* is to live virtuous **Soul** \- to be nurtured and protected \- *[Wisdom]* saves the soul; *[Ignorance]* to evil ***Execution*** \- **399 BCE** \- hated due to social & moral criticism \- charged on ***heresy*** and ***corrupting minds of the youth*** \- chose death over exile **IV. PLATO** ***[Plato]*** \- successor of Socrates & teacher of Aristotle \- taught **[Dualism]**; World of Ideas and Senses, Soul **World of Forms/Ideas** \- the Perfect World; Metaphysical \- origin of the ***Soul*** **World of Senses** \- the Imperfect World; Physical \- where the body and man reside **Man** \- both corporal*(body)* and spiritual*(soul)* \- governed by reason; given by the Soul **Soul** \- from the World of Ideas \- trapped in the body; returns to its world after death **"The Fall"** -- an event that causes the soul to fall to the World of Senses **"The Liberation"** -- *[Death]*; body dies and soul is freed to the World of Ideas **[PARTS OF THE SOUL]** **Rational** \- Logic \- is the Brain \- loves Truth & Wisdom \- virtue is Wisdom \- vice of Pride/Sloth **Spirited** \- Emotion \- is the Heart \- loves Honor & Victory \- virtue of Courage \- vice of Anger/Envy **Appetitive** \- Desire \- is the Belly \- loves Pleasure \- virtue of Moderation \- vice of Greed **V. ARISTOTLE** ***[Aristotle]*** \- polymath; student of Plato and teacher of [Alexander the Great] \- one of the first to study *natural science* \- studied **Metaphysics**; general aspects of reality **The Being** \- *"It Is"* \- exists through *Substance*; **Essence***(Form)* and **Existence***(Matter)* \- man's soul's purpose is to endow reason and animate the body **The Being's Causes** 1. ***Formal Cause*** -- form of an entity 2. ***Material Cause*** -- what it is made of 3. ***Efficient Cause*** -- what made it 4. ***Final Cause*** -- it's end or purpose **Aristotle's Thought (ETHICS)** \- the moral philosophy \- *"virtue"* means with **proper function** \- humans have specific functions \- finding a function with **reason** is the **soul's** activity \- ***goal of life***; serving a purpose \- **happiness** means contributing for yourself and for the *[polis]*(*state/city*) \- **friendship** is an alternative happiness \- become a good and productive citizen \- ***existentialism*** in the condition of failing purpose I. **SAINT AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO** ***[Saint Augustine of Hippo]*** \- had been a *pagan, womanizer, gambler* & *cheater* \- had been prayed by his mother to have a **miracle conversion** \- one of the ***Doctors of the Church*** **PHILOSOPHY:** \- the **Soul** is a gift from God of the *Human Person* to be given ***reason*** \- *Man* lived in harmony with God in the ***Garden of Eden*** \- *Man* suffered the **Original Sin** after eating from the ***[Tree of Knowledge]*** \- *Man* has a *[hidden desire]*; criticized **carnal/sexual** desire \- **Free Will** is a gift from God connected by the **Soul & Reason** \- **GOD** is omniscient and all-good \- **Free Will** conflicts with ***[Human Desire]*** that intervenes with reason \- **Two Types of Evil:** 1. ***Natural Evil*** - evil that occurs naturally like earthquakes and fires 2. ***Man's Evil*** - evil that occurs by the **Will of Man** \- *Man* is saved through ***Redemption*** \- *Man* lives in the **[Imperfect]** ***City of Man*** but joins to live in the **[Perfect] *City of God*** \- *Man* is bound to *[be happy]* II. **SAINT THOMAS AQUINAS** ***[Saint Thomas Aquinas]*** \- a priest of the *Dominican Order* \- one of the ***Doctors of the Church*** \- wrote ***[Summa Theologica]*** **PHILOSOPHY:** \- *Man* is substantially **body & soul** \- *Man* is the convergence of *corporeal & spirit* \- *Man is an **embodied soul*** \- **Soul** is the *substantial form* of the body \- **Body** is the *material medium* *of perception* of the soul \- ***Principle of Action in the Body*** & ***Principle of Life of the Body*** \- **Soul** is the man's intellect & form \- **Soul's *intellect and will*** remains after death \- **Soul** is substance; **Body** is actual \- **Human Existence** is unity and eternal fellowship with God \- ***Man's Will*** is towards **Charity and Holiness** \- ***[Beatific Vision]***; those who experience a perfect life \- ***Virtue Ethics***: *Principle of Double Effect* **QUALITIES OF GOD** \- simple and has no body \- perfect \- infinite \- immeasurable \- is one **LAWS:** 1. ***Eternal Law*** - degree of God governing all \- the ***Supreme Reason***; not understood 2. ***Natural Law*** - human *participation* of the **Eternal Law** \- discovered by *reason* based on the ***first principles*** ***(*** good is to be done***)*** 3. ***Human Law*** - natural law created by Man 4. ***Divine Law*** - revealed by *Scriptures* **RATIONAL PROOFS OF GOD** **1^st^ :*Ex Motu*** - everything is moved by a mover, and the *[unmoved mover]* proceeds all motion called ***"God"*** **2^nd^ :*Ex Causa*** - *[first cause]*; everything is caused by something, the *[uncaused cause]* called ***"God"*** **3^rd^ :*Ex Contingentia*** - *[contingency]*; some beings may either exist or not as it is **impossible** for everything to exist, there is a *[necessary being]* not contingent to any called ***"God"*** **4^th^ :*Ex Gradu*** - *[degree]*; various degrees of ***perfection*** in the universe, there is a *[pinnacle of perfection]* called ***"God"*** **5^th^ :*Ex Fine*** - *[teleological design]*; all natural bodies which are unintelligent act towards an end, there is a *[guide of natural bodies towards an end]* called ***"God"*** III. **RENE DESCARTES** ***[Rene Descartes]*** \- father of Modern Philosophy \- mathematician and scientist \- son of a nobleman \- developed ***analytical geometry*** ***Descartes' Epistemology*** \- rationalist \- innate knowledge ***Descartes' Method*** \- *[Reason]* is essence \- everything can be doubted \- developed a set of ***scientific principles*** \- senses can be deceiving \- **Methodic Doubt**; doubt for truth \- **Rules:** \- never believe anything \- analyze problem into many parts as necessary \- find the easiest solution to most difficult \- list every possible detail **MEDITATIONS** I. ***Existence of All Things*** \- information from senses can be inaccurate \- doubt all things, especially mathematical objects \- doubt is a form of thinking; **thinking** exists II. ***Absolute Certainty*** \- expressing certainty through thought \- A body with sensory \- **"No"** to man's beliefs to be false, an **"I"** to convince \- *"I think therefore I am"* III. ***Existence of God*** \- a. **[Causality]** - something cannot come from nothing \- clear idea of God \- cause must be as **clear/real** effect \- b. **[Conclusion]** - idea of God canot be imperfect; Cause is greater \- **God** is not formally an external thing but a *thinking thing* IV. ***Possibility of Error*** \- ***Judgement*** is the faculty of mind from *will & intellect* \- ***Error*** is when *[will of decisions]* exceeds *[ability to understand]* V. ***The Ontological Argument*** \- **God** is intelligent, existing since He would lack *perfection* if He did not \- **God** exists to be perfect VI. ***Distinction Between Body and Mind*** \- **Body** is *mechanical* and **Mind** is *control* \- Body and Mind is distinct **IDEAS:** \- rationalism is acquired by a priori means \- priori ideas & arguments are ideas important for genuine knowledge IV. **HUMAN PERSON AS EMBODIED SPIRIT** ***[Man]*** - represents the general human race ***[Human Being]*** - used to separate man from other *Human Classification* *-* refers to the deepest & natural behavior of a person distinguished from animals \- very essence of humanity ***[Human]*** - classifications & species ***[Human Person]*** - possessing self-awareness & thought ***[Personhood]*** - quality of being an individual ***[Human Person]*** \- tangible body with ***Body, Mind & Spirit*** \- from **Adam and Eve** (Theory of Creation) \- from **Evolution(Ape)** (Theory of Evolution) a. ***Physical Self*** \- essential features of humans \- includes strength & body type b. ***Cognitive Self*** \- difference of mind & thought \- mental aspects ***[Embodied Spirit]*** \- combination of body & soul \- ***self-awareness***; one's perception, thoughts, emotions and identity \- ***an ability*** of consciousness to look inward \- can ***connect and interact***; externality going beyond the self & embrace others \- ***not determined by others***; capable of making choices & decisions based on preference \- ***inherent value***; dignity of man that cannot equal to any wealth, **rights** being absolute \- ***Human Body*** imposes limitations & possibilities to achieve *[transcendence]* **INSTANCES:** **BUDDHISM *(Noble Truths)*** \- life is full of suffering \- suffering is caused by desires \- happiness is ended out of suffering \- follow the ***Eight-Fold Path*** **CHRISTIANITY** \- do what is good for it is the *great truth* V. **HUMAN PERSON AND THE ENVIRONMENT** \- **[Philosophy]** seeks to find relation in human & environment ***[Environmental Ethics]*** - understanding moral relation of man to non-human beings \- ***landscape change*** by human commmunities \- there is a ***special role*** on human \- ***man*** is capable of transforming the world \- we are capable of using ***nature*** as access \- **[Nature is:]** *an access* & and a *source of materials* 1. ***[Anthropocentrism]*** - we aare aable to use the environment for our sake \- *man is the most significant* 2. ***[Biocentrism]*** - man cannot be the only significant species, but all organism 3. ***[Ecocentrism]*** - value of ecosystems, biology and community within a place \- *man* as **stewards of nature** \- balanced & beautiful environment **PRINCIPLES** 1. ***[Environmental Integrity]*** - maintaining state of environment \- activities should not disrupt natural flows 2. ***[Economic Efficiency]*** - prudence decision making in creating *least minimum waste* a. ***Prudence*** - regulate of ability b. ***Frugality*** - quality of being economical 3. ***[Equity]*** - use of resources in relation to considering future generation to experience the ecosystem/environment of the present