Introduction To Philosophy PDF

INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY Objectives 1. At the end of this lesson, you will be able to: 2. Explain the value, cause and process of philosophizing. 3. Discuss the real meaning of Philosophy 4. Reflect on a concrete experience in a philosophical way. 5. Exemplify the value of philosophy in...

INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY Objectives 1. At the end of this lesson, you will be able to: 2. Explain the value, cause and process of philosophizing. 3. Discuss the real meaning of Philosophy 4. Reflect on a concrete experience in a philosophical way. 5. Exemplify the value of philosophy in living a meaningful and obtaining a broader perspective in life. The Beginning of Philosophy 6. "Human by nature is inquisitive" - Socrates 7. Intellect: Truth = Freewill: Good 8. In Philosophy what matters is the QUESTION and NOT the ANSWER. 9. "Wonder is the feeling of a philosopher, and philosophy starts with WONDER." -- Socrates Philosophy begins\... 1. 2. 3. 4. Definition 10. PHILOSOPHY was first used by PYTHAGORAS, a Greek philosopher and mathematician. Think Pythagorean Theorem! Etymological Definition 11. PHILOSOPHY from the Greek words "philia/philo" = love and "sophia" = wisdom 12. Philosophy means "Love of Wisdom." 13. By LOVE it seeks unity with the object, it desires to possess its object. 14. To philosophize, therefore, is to be in a quest, or to have the desire towards living the truth. 15. Wisdom means the good exercise or application of knowledge. DIFFERENT FORMS OF KNOWLEDGE 16. (based in degree and content) 1. 2. 3. 4. Doxa or Opinion 17. refers to a common understanding or common sense. 18. Lowest kind because it lacks any proper justification or attained without any valid explanation. 19. Examples: rumors and gossips EPISTEME/SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE 20. is a kind of knowing that has grounded or justified assertions. 21. they are factual statements that are proven by scientific method. 22. Examples: (a) Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius. (b) Dogs are animals. TECHNE/TECHNICAL KNOWLEDGE 23. Knowledge of the means-end of objects, that is, "how things are made and done." 24. Examples are the carpenter's, cook's barber's or cobbler's knowledge SOPHIA/WISDOM 25. Highest of all knowledge because it is the "most finished of the forms of knowledge" and it is knowledge of first principles. Definition 26. Philosophy is not merely academic, speculative and abstract, but also practical and concrete. 27. Philosophy is a way of life: "the goal of \[philosophy\] is to transform the whole of the individual's life." 28. Philosophy is an act of doing. 29. Philosophy is the science of all things or beings in their ultimate causes or principles acquired by the natural light of reason alone. Elements of the Definition 1. 2. 3. 4. Science 30. Latin "scire" -- "to know" 31. Not just knowledge of facts but the reasons behind the facts or the knowledge of its causes. 32. It aims for certitude; it strives to know the whys of things. 33. Involves critical thinking that includes questioning, analyzing, synthesizing, evaluating and judging. All things/beings 34. Two Types of Beings (Accdg. to St. Thomas Aquinas): 1. 2. Necessary Beings 35. Non-existence is an impossibility. 36. Exists eternally; No beginning or end 37. Ex. God Contingent Beings 38. Existence is caused 39. May or may not exist 40. Ex. human beings, material and spiritual worlds 41. In their ultimate causes 42. it looks into the reason, the ultimate why's and the wheretofore's of all things, examining in detail all realities. Aristotle's Four Causes 1. 2. 3. 4. Material Cause 43. The material out of which the thing exists 44. e.g. A table\'s material cause is wood. Formal Cause 45. The form in which the thing is arranged 46. e.g. A table\'s formal cause is the idea of an elevated flat surface. The Efficient Cause 47. The \'mover\' that causes the thing to be or happen 48. e.g. A table\'s efficient cause is the carpenter that made it. The Final Cause 49. The purpose for which the thing exists 50. e.g. A table\'s final cause is to be used to place food or other things on Acquired by the natural light of reason 51. it means the "human reason" ------------------------ ------------------------- NATURAL REASON SUPERNATURAL REASON Refers to human reason Has an element of Faith Has limitations No limitations Realm of Philosophy Realm of Theology ------------------------ ------------------------- 52. When philosophy ends, theology begins. 53. Philosophy is the science of all things or beings in their ultimate causes or principles acquired by the natural light of reason alone. BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY 1. Metaphysics 54. meta - beyond 55. physikon - nature/physical 56. investigates the fundamental nature of reality, being and existence. 57. Deals with the question of REALITY and BEING. 58. It also deals with the questions about NON-PHYSICAL WORLD such as; "do angels exist?"and what do we mean by real?" 2. Cosmology 59. Kosmos - world or universe 60. Logos - study of 61. study of the universe or world including its origin, dynamics and characteristics, as well as the laws that govern its order. 62. popularly known as the "theory of the universe" 3. Theodicy 63. Theos - God 64. Dike - right, just 65. studies the nature, being, goodness, and justice of God in the light of reason alone 66. also God and man relationship and other doctrines related to divinity. 67. known as "rational theology", because it uses reason to attain its objectives. 4. Philosophical or Rational Psychology 68. Psyche - mind, soul, spirit, 69. Logos - study of 70. studies the nature and functioning of the mind. 71. otherwise known as the science of behavior and the "theory of the mind" 72. deals with man as a bipartite being, i.e., as a composite of body and soul 5. Logic 73. Logos - word or 74. Logike - treatises or thought 75. Science and art of correct thinking 76. METHODS ARGUMENT 77. inquires into the nature and problems of correct thinking and orderly reasoning. 78. Man and Reason 79. It offers answers to the questions such as: \- "Is that reasoning sound?" \- "Is that statement true?" \- "Is that reasoning valid?" 6. Aesthetics 80. aisthetikos -- sense of perception 81. studies beauty and the art. 82. Art - man's creativeness/skills in doing things beautifully. 83. Beauty - quality attributed to whatever pleases the beholder, such as form, color, behavior. 84. It offers answers to questions like: \- "Is that a good music?" \- "Is that painting better than this one?" 7. Ethics 85. ethos - customs, manners 86. investigates the right and wrong in man's behavior and the morality of human acts and conducts. 87. Man and Actions 88. Deals with question about right and wrong e.g.; \- "Is morality subjective?" \- "What makes actions right and wrong?" 8. Epistemology 89. Episteme - knowledge 90. Logos - study of 91. study of the origins, nature, extent and the veracity (vera - truth) reliability, truthfulness, validity of knowledge. 92. Known as "theory of knowledge" 93. Investigates different ways of knowing, and whether there are limits to knowing. 94. Man and Knowledge 95. It considers questions like: \- "How can we possibly know?" \- "Is there such thing as 'certainty'?" Brief History of Philosophy +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Periods in Western | | | | Philosophy | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | ANCIENT | COSMO-CENTRIC | THALES, PYTHAGORAS, | | | | SOCRATIC | | (600-300A) | | PHILOSPHERS.ETC\... | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | MEDIEVAL | THEO-CENTRIC | ST. ANSELM, AQUINAS, | | | | ST. AUGUSTINE..ETC. | | (300-1400AD) | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | MODERN | ANTHROPOCENTRIC | RENE DESCARTES, JOHN | | | | LOCKE, KARL | | (1500-1800AD) | | MARX\...ETC. | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | CONTEMPORARY | ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY | LEO TOLSTOY, | | | (LANGUGE, | FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE, | | (1900-PRESENT) | NAT.SCIENCES) | EDMUND | | | | HUSSERL\...ETC. | | | FREE FALL | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ ANCIENT Philosophy   Ancient Greece 96. As Greece is a mountainous and rather barren country, its inhabitants have been forced to seek new lands that would offer them work and prosperity. Across the Aegean Sea 97. In the 6th century BC, it is a winding series of coastal colonies, extending from the coast of Asia Minor to Africa, to Spain and to southern Italy. City of Miletus 98. Among the Greeks which have contributed greatly to the formation of philosophy are the Ionians, which was spread through Asia Minor, the islands of the Aegean Sea (Ionia), and southern Italy and Sicily. The first 3 Western Philosophers 99. It is among the colonies of Asia Minor that the story of philosophy begins, in the city of Miletus where the first three Western philosophers were born and lived: 100. Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes 101. They sought the PRIMARY SUBSTANCE. Thales(625-545 BC) 102. Thales is said to have declared the primary substance is water. 103. He held that the transformation of this fundamental substance is the source of all living things. 104. The first acclaimed philosopher. He wondered earlier than Pythagoras also a philosopher in 6th century. Anaximander (610-547 BC) 105. Primary Substance: Boundless, unchanging, undefined. 106. Man is a being that has evolved from the animals of another species lower than his, in fact from fish. Anaximenes (585-525 BC) 107. Primary Substance: Air- all matter is composed of air. 108. Air is central for life- all known living creatures need air to survive. 109. Air undergoes 2 processes: Condensation and Rarefaction Heraclitus (540-480 BC) 110. "You can not step in the same river twice." 111. "The only permanent thing in this world is CHANGE." 112. The world is in a constant change. 113. The fundamental element of the universe was fire (not water). Pythagoras 114. Number. All things take up space, and have measure. 115. The soul is immortal, divine, and is subjected to metempsychosis. 116. Incarcerated in the body until it gets purified and reunited with the divine. 117. He coined the "philosophy" Leucippus & Democritus 118. The atomist held that all matter is composed of physical atoms. 119. These atoms are tiny, imperceptible, indestructible, indivisible, eternal and uncreated. 120. How they combine and interact explain different forms and types of matter. Ancient Philosophy 121. What is man according to the ancient Greek philosophers? 122. What do you think is the implication?(values) 123. Greek philosophers understand man in the context of the world. 124. Man is himself a world. 125. Man is a microcosm Methods of Philosophizing 126. Truth is the ultimate object kn knowledge THE NATURE OF TRUTH BEARERS OF TRUTH 127. The first thing that we need to understand about truth is that it is a kind of property whose opposite is falsity. Something that is said to be true, which we express as "truth" or "a truth," is said to have the property of truth or being true. The things that can be properly said to be true, or to which we can properly attribute the property of truth, are referred to by philosophers as the "bearers of truth." And there usually are three candidates for the bearers of truth namely: Beliefs, Statements, and Sentences STATEMENT 128. What we call a statement, which philosophers also call a "proposition," refers to a linguistic expression whose function is 129. to advance a claim about the world. This claim may be about things or events in the world or about relations of ideas. BELIEFS 130. Beliefs, in this regard are the mental expressions of our claims. The only difference between the statement "Two and two are four" and the belief "Two and two are four" is that the statement is expressed linguistically while the belief is made in the mind. SENTENCE 131. A sentence expresses a statement if something has been claimed to be true, and what has been said is either true or false. Kinds of Truth 132. The question of whether the truth of a belief or statement is established or arrived at by means of sense experience or reason gives rise to the difference between **empirical truth** and **rational truth**. 133. Empirical Truth (sense experience) 134. Rational Truth (reason) 135. Empirical truth is technically described as a posteriori, which means that it can only be known after some relevant experience. On the other hand, rational truth is technically described as a priori, which means that it can be known before some relevant experience. 136. For example: Empirical truth \"It is raining.\" Rational truth \"Five and five is ten.\" (Mathematical statements\...) 137. The question of whether or not knowing the truth of a statement or belief extends our knowledge or adds to what we already know. This question gives rise to the difference between **synthetic truth** and **analytic truth**. 138. Synthetic truth (extends knowledge) 139. Analytic truth (does not) 140. For example: All empirical truths are synthetic truths. Knowing that the table is brown, for instance, extends our knowledge about the table. We know what a table is and knowing that it is colored brown adds to what we know already about a table. 141. Third is the question of whether or not the truth of a belief or statement is dependent on the attitudes, preferences, or interests of a person. This gives rise to the difference between **subjective truth** and **objective truth**. Subjective truth is dependent on the attitudes, preferences, or interests of a person; while objective truth is not. 142. Fourth, is the question whether a belief or statement is acknowledged to be true by everyone or only by some people. This gives rise to the difference between **universal truth** and **relative truth**. Something is universally true if its truth is acknowledged by everyone, while something is relatively true if its truth is acknowledged only by some people. 143. E. Fifth, is the question of under what area of study does the topic or content of a belief or statement that is held to be true falls. This gives rise to a number of kinds of truth, as many as there are different areas of study. We may call these truths **disciplinal** kinds of truth. For instance, we have religious truth, scientific truth, psychological truth, biological truth, and economic truth. Ways of Knowing 144. The ways of knowing or the methods of truth can be distinguished into particular and general kinds. The general methods refer to the methods of truth described by the philosophers as \"theories of truth,\" mainly consisting of the correspondence, coherence, and pragmatic theories. 145. The particular methods of truth that we shall examine are observation, reasoning, intuition, mystical experience, and the appeal to authority. GENERAL METHOD 146. According to the general method of **CORRESPONDENCE**, we can know whether a statement/belief is true by examining whether the statement/belief corresponds to, or represents, a fact in the world. 147. For example, \"the sky is blue\" is true because it represents to the fact that the sky is blue. 148. According to the general method of **COHERENCE**, we can know whether a statement is true by examining whether the statement coheres with rules of the relevant system. 149. For example, the statement \"three and three are six\" is true because it coheres with the rules of the mathematical system. 150. An according to the general method of **PRAGMATISM**, we can know whether a statement is true by examining the consequences of holding or accepting the statement to be true. If holding the statement or belief to be true results in beneficial consequences, then it is true. For instance, some people who think that there are ghosts or vampires based their belief in fact that they find it useful to hold such a belief - like explaining unusual phenomena and dealing with their fears. PARTICULAR METHOD 151. However, the question about the general methods of truth is, how does one know whether a statement/belief does correspond to the fact, coheres with the rule of a system, or results in beneficial consequences? To know this requires some specific/particular methods. 152. The particular methods of truth are; by observation, reasoning, intuition, mystical experience, and the appeal to authority. OPINION, FACT AND TRUTH OPINION 153. It is an expression of one\'s feelings based on facts, emotions, and beliefs or views. 154. Example: Filipinos are the most resilient and hospitable people in the world. FACT 155. It is a statement that can be checked and backed up with evidence. It is often used in conjunction with research and study. TRUTH 156. Something that has actual and proven existence scientifically and spiritually regardless of one\'s opinion and beliefs. 157. Example: God exists. 158. Opinion - what someone believes or thinks 159. Fact - Firmly planted in the material world 160. Truth - extends to the spiritual realm METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING 161. Dialectic Method 162. Socratic Method 163. Scientific Method DIALECTIC METHOD 164. Comes from the Greek word \"dialektike\" which means \"conversation\". 165. It is the art of talking back and forth, disagreeing with one another, and arguing about contentious issues. SOCRATIC METHOD 166. Developed by Socrates who was a Greek philosopher and teacher. 167. Comes from the Greek word \"elenchus\", meaning to inquire or cross-examine. DIALECTIC AND SOCRATIC METHOD 168. Both Dialectic method and Socratic method are based on a dialogue between two or more people who may hold differing views but wish to pursue the truth by seeking agreement with one another. ------------- ----------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Dialectic Socratic Origin Dialektike Elenchus Meaning Art of conversation Inquiry or cross-examination Main points To ask, to clarify, to disagree To ask, to find/use example, to reject, to ask again (intelligent questions) Purpose To gain knowledge, to reach the truth and have new wisdom Example Do you agree with x? Why or why not? What is x? To what extent must we be x? How do you x? ------------- ----------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ SCIENTIFIC METHOD 169. Also called empirical method, it is a process of determining truth or knowledge through experimentation, inductive and deductive reasoning, and hypothesis or theory testing. What are fallacies? 170. Fallacies are illogical conclusions but not necessarily a false statement. They violate the rules of logical thought, but often seem plausible or even convincing. 171. Most common fallacies 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Ad Populum 172. Using the popularity of a premise or proposition as evidence for its truthfulness. 173. This is a fallacy which is very difficult to spot because our \"common sense" tells us that if something is popular, it must be good/true/valid, but this is not so, especially in a society where clever marketing, social and political weight, and money can buy popularity. 174. Everybody is doing X. Therefore, X must be the right thing to do. Ad Hominem 175. This is when you attack your opponent as a human being rather than dealing with their arguments. 176. Person 1 is claiming Y. Person 1 is a moron. Therefore, Y is not true. False Dichotomy 177. Sometimes a person will present two possible options and argue that we need to choose between them. But this assumes that there is no third option, and that might not be true. 178. Either X, Y, or Z is true. Non-Sequitur 179. This is when a person draws a conclusion that does not follow logically from the evidence. 180. Claim A is made. Evidence is presented for claim A. Therefore, claim C is true. Reduction ad Hitlerum 181. The attempt to make an argument analogous with Hitler or the Nazi party. Hitler is probably the most universally despised figure in history, so any connection to Hitler, or his beliefs, can (erroneously) cause others to view the argument in a similar light. 182. Person 1 suggests that Y is true. Hitler liked Y. Therefore, Y is false. Ad Misericordiam 183. When an argument relies on pity or sympathy and altruism (sacrifice for the sake of the other). This pity may be directed toward the arguer or some third party. 184. Q: Why did you steal money? A: I\'m out of work, my family hasn\'t eaten in two days. The Human Person as An Embodied Spirit 185. **Transcendence** comes from the Latin prefix trans-, meaning "beyond," and the word scandare, meaning "to climb." 186. Fulfilling a goal entails transcendence because it opens a state of thinking and feeling that there is something more to life than just physical and material things. What is an EMBODIED SPIRIT? 187. To embody means to put something abstract such as soul into a body to give this "something abstract" a concrete form. 188. This implies that the human person is made up of a physical state (body) and an abstract state (soul). 189. Aristotle - Man is a composition of Body and Soul 190. Socrates - Man is a being who Thinks & Wills Limitations 191. Will always occur to anyone. 192. Does not come at a specified period. 193. Varies across all people. 194. Included here are the physical limitations of our body. Limitations 1. Bodily Limitations 2. Social and Environmental Limitations Bodily Limitations 195. Mental and emotional disorders 196. Disabilities 197. Diseases and illnesses 198. Failures Social and Environmental Limitations 199. Socio-economic status 200. Neighborhood 201. Abusive relationships 202. Negative influences 203. In order for transcendence to be possible, we need to recognize and evaluate our own limitations and experiences. 204. "Whatever comes our way, whatever battle we have raging inside of us, we always have a choice. It is our choices that makes us who we are, and we always have a choice to do what is right." - Peter Parker