Philippine Politics and Governance PDF First Grading Reviewer SY 2024-2025

Philippine Politics and Governance © JDG THE CONCEPT OF POWER Introduction Power is one of the important concepts and plays a huge role in politics, from governing how decisions are made to how political actors interact...

Philippine Politics and Governance © JDG THE CONCEPT OF POWER Introduction Power is one of the important concepts and plays a huge role in politics, from governing how decisions are made to how political actors interact with one another. The Meaning of Power Politics always involves the exercise of power by one person or persons to another person or persons (Shively, 2012). Power is the ability to get someone to do something he or she wants to accomplish, thus making things happen in the way he or she wants. In having such ability, along with the exercise of power is an influence. Thus, influence is the process of by which a person affects the behaviour and feeling of another person. In order to influence a person, there must be an authority which is the right to change another person. Power is as well a prime ingredient of politics (Roskin et.al, 2012). However, there are instances that power becomes cynical, brutal and self-destructive that affirmed Lord Acton’s dictum: “Power tends to corrupt; absolute power corrupts absolutely.” Sources of Power 1. Organizational power is a power derived from a person’s position in an organization and from control over valuable resources afforded by that position. 1.1 Reward power – it is the extent to which a leader can use extrinsic and intrinsic rewards to control and influence other people 1.2 Coercive power – it is the degree to which a leader can deny desired rewards or administer punishments to control other people and let them follow his wants 1.3 Legitimate power – it is the extent to which a leader can use subordinates’ internalized values or beliefs that the boss has a right of command to control his subordinates’’ behaviour. That if legitimacy is lost, authority will not be accepted by subordinates. It is otherwise known as formal hierarchical authority 1.4 Information power – the leader has the access to and control of information. This complements legitimate hierarchical power. This could be granted to specialists and managers in the middle of the information system. The people may protect information in order to increase their power 1.5 Process power – the leader has full control over the methods of production and analysis. Thereby placing an individual in the position of influencing how inputs are transformed into outputs as well as managing the analytical process used to make choices First Grading Page 1  Philippine Politics and Governance © JDG 1.6 Representative power – the legal right conferred to speak by the firm as a representative of a potentially significant group composed of individuals from departments or outside the firm. Helps complex organizations deal with a variety of constituencies 2. Individual power or personal power is a power derived from personal characteristics that are of value to the organization 2.1 Expert power ❖ The ability to control another person’s behaviour through the possession of knowledge, experience, or judgment that the other person needs but does not have ❖ Such power is relative, and not absolute. 2.2 Rational persuasion ❖ The ability to control another person’s behaviour by convincing the other person of the desirability of a goal and a reasonable way of achieving it. ❖ Much of a supervisor’s daily activity involves rational persuasion 2.3 Referent power ❖ The ability to control another’s behaviour because the person wants to identify with the power source. ❖ Can be enhanced by linking to morality and ethics and long-term vision. Symbols of Power Since organizational charts only reveal authority and not power, it is important to determine what the symbols of power are across most organizations. One of the more easily identified power symbols is that of a uniform for a police officer. A. Kanter’s Symbols of Power The primary characteristic of Kanter’s symbols of power is that they provide an ability to aid or assist another person. Her symbols are active and other- directed. They symbols are: 1. Ability to intercede for someone in trouble 2. Ability to get placements for favoured employees 3. Exceeding budget limitations 4. Procuring above-average raises for employees 5. Getting items on the agenda at meetings 6. Access to recent information First Grading Page 2  Philippine Politics and Governance © JDG 7. Having top managers seek out one’s opinions B. Kanter’s Symbols of Powerlesness Powerlessness is lack of power, which may have different symptoms in managers at various levels of the organization. C. Korda’s Symbols of Power Korda’s symbols of power are easier to determine, and they include office furnishings, time power and standing by. Ways to Expand Power (Schermerhorn, 2003) Clearly define roles and responsibilities Provide opportunities for creative problem solving coupled with the discretion to act Emphasize different ways of exercising influence Provide support to individuals so they become more comfortable with developing their power Expand inducements for thinking and acting, not just obeying Two Faces of Power McClelland takes a stand for the use of authority in a right or wrong fashion. 1. Personal power is used for personal gain, and results in a win-lose approach. 2. Social control involves the use of power to create motivation or to accomplish group goals. Influence Tactics 1. Consultation 2. Rational persuasion 3. Inspirational appeal 4. Ingratiation Types of Authority (Weber in Ethridge & Handelman, 2004) 1. Charismatic authority – it is an influence possessed by a person by virtue of their personal magnetism. They have the capacity to gain respect and even adulation to the point of moving followers to make great sacrifices. It flows not from the legal basis of one’s power but an individual’s personal “gifts.” First Grading Page 3  Philippine Politics and Governance © JDG 2. Rational-legal authority – it is a leadership based on established law. People obey the leader or executive because they accept his or her power under the law. 3. Traditional authority – the leadership is based from the culture that is people often give allegiance to the one who occupy the institutional positions. 4. Coercive authority – the power to use force such as police or military force to demand obedience from the subordinate “Power tends to corrupt; absolute power corrupts absolutely.” – Lord John Dalberg- Acton, 8th Baronet First Grading Page 4  Philippine Politics and Governance © JDG POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES Ideology – it comes from French ideologie, meaning the study or science of ideas. A system of ideals, especially one which forms the basis of economic or political theory and policy o It is a set of normative beliefs and values that a person or other entity has for non- epistemic reasons. o Epistemology – from the Greek episteme, meaning ‘knowledge’, is the branch of philosophy concerned with the theory of knowledge. It is the study of the nature of knowledge, justification, and the rationality of belief. o Ideology was coined by Antoine Destutt de Tracy, a French Enlightenment aristocrat and philosopher, who conceived it in 1796 as the “science of ideas” during the French Reign of Terror by trying to develop a rational system of ideas to oppose the irrational impulses of the mob. o As defined by French Marxist philosopher Lois Althusser, ideology is “the imagined existence (or idea) of things as it relates to the real conditions of existence” Political ideology – it is a certain set of ethical ideals, principles, doctrines, myths or symbols of a social movement, institution, class or large group that explains how society should work and offers some political and cultural blueprint for a certain social order. o It largely concerns itself with how to allocate power and to what ends it should be used. Some political parties follow a certain ideology very closely while others may take broad inspiration from a group of related ideologies without specifically embracing any one of them. Anarchism – it came from the ancient Greek word anarkhia, meaning “without a ruler”, composed of the prefix a (i.e. without) and the word arkhos (leader or ruler); the word “ism” denotes the ideological current that favors anarchy. It is an anti- authoritarian political and social philosophy that rejects hierarchies deemed unjust and advocates their replacement with self-managed, self-governed societies based on voluntary, cooperative institutions o These institutions are often described as stateless societies, although there are other authors have defined them more specifically as distinct institutions based on non-hierarchical or free. o It is usually placed on the far-left of the political spectrum ❖ A political spectrum is a system to characterize and classify different political positions in relation to one another upon one or more geometric axes that represent independent political dimensions. First Grading Page 5  Philippine Politics and Governance © JDG Socialism – for Andrew Vincent, the word socialism finds its root in the Latin sociare, which means to combine or share. The related, more technical term in Roman and then medieval law was societas. This latter word could mean companionship and fellowship as well as the more legalistic idea of a consensual contract between freemen. o The term “socialism” was created by Henri de Saint-Simon, one of the founders of what would later be labelled “utopian socialism”. Simon coined the term as a contrast to the liberal doctrine of “individualism,” which stressed that people act or should act as if they are in the isolation from one another. o A range of economic and social systems characterised by social ownership of the means of production and workers’ self-management, as well as the political theories and movements associated with them. Social ownership can be public, collective or cooperative ownership, or a citizenship ownership of equity. Liberalism – “liber”, means free. It is a political and moral philosophy based on liberty, consent of the governed, and equality before the law. Liberals espouse a wide array of views depending on their understanding of these principles, but they generally support limited government, individual rights (including civil rights and human rights), capitalism (free markets), democracy, secularism, gender equality, racial equality, internationalism, freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and freedom of religion. Yellow is the political color most commonly associated with liberalism. First Grading Page 6  Philippine Politics and Governance © JDG Conservatism – a political and social philosophy promoting traditional social institutions in the context of culture and civilization. The central tents of conservatism include: o Tradition o Organic society o Hierarchy o Authority o Property rights Conservatives seek to preserve a range of institutions such as religion, parliamentary government, and property rights, with the aim of emphasizing social stability and continuity. The more traditional elements – reactionaries – opposed modernism and seek a return to the way things were. Fascism – is a form of far right, authoritarian ultranationalism characterized by dictatorial power, forcible suppression of opposition, and strong regimentation of society and of the economy which came to prominence in early 20 th century Europe. o The Italian term fascism is derived from fascio meaning a bundle of sticks, ultimately from the Latin word fasces. This was the name given to political organizations in Italy known as fasci, groups similar to guilds/syndicates. o Fascism is place on the far-right within the traditional left-right spectrum. o Fascists believe that liberal democracy is obsolete and regard the complete mobilization of society under a totalitarian one-party state as necessary to prepare a nation for armed conflict and to respond effectively to economic difficulties. Such a state is led by a strong leader – such as a dictator and a martial government composed of the members of the governing fascist party – to forge national unity and maintain a stable and orderly society. Ecologism – aka Green politics, or eco politics, is a political ideology that aims to foster an ecologically sustainable society rooted in environmentalism, nonviolence, social justice and grassroots democracy. o The political term “green” was used initially in relation to die Grunen (German for the “greens”), a green party formed in the late 1970s. o Supporters of green politics share many ideas with the ecology, conservatism, environmentalism, feminist and peace movements. o Green party platforms are largely considered left in the political spectrum. The green ideology has connections with various other ecocentric political ideologies, including ecosocialism, ecoanarchism, and econofeminism. Feminism – Charles Fourier, a utopian socialist and French philosopher, is credited with having coined the word “feminisme” in 1837. First Grading Page 7  Philippine Politics and Governance © JDG o The words “feminisme” and “feministe” first appeared in France and the Netherlands in 1872, Great Britain in the 1890s, and the United States in 1910. o Feminism is a range of social movements, political movements, and ideologies that share a common goal: to define, establish, and achieve the political, economic, personal, and social equality of the sexes. o Feminism incorporates the position that societies prioritize the male point of view, and that women are treated unfairly within those societies. o Efforts to change that include fighting gender stereotypes and seeking to establish educational and professional opportunities for women that are equal to those for men. Multiculturalism – as a political philosophy involves ideologies and policies which vary widely. It has been described as a salad bowl and as a cultural mosaic, in contrast to a melting pot. o In the political philosophy of multiculturalism, ideas are focused on the ways in which societies are either believed to or should, respond to cultural and religious differences. It is often associated with “identity politics”, “the politics of difference,” and the “politics of recognition.” It is also a matter of economic interests and political power. Nationalism – is an ideology and movement that promotes the interests of a particular nation (as in a group of people), especially with the aim of gaining and maintaining the nation’s sovereignty (self-governance) over its homeland. o Nationalism holds that each nation should govern itself, free from outside interference (self-determination), that a nation is a natural and ideal basis for a polity, and that the nation is the only rightful source of political power (popular sovereignty). It further aims to build and maintain a single national identity – based on shared social characteristics such as culture, language, religion, politics and belief in a shared singular history and to promote national unity or solidarity. Fundamentalism – usually has a religious connotation that includes unwavering attachment to a set of irreducible beliefs. However, fundamentalism has come to be applied to a tendency among certain groups – mainly, although not exclusively, in religion – that is characterized by a markedly strict literalism as it is applied to certain specific scriptures, dogmas or ideologies and a strong sense of the importance of maintaining in group and outgroup distinctions. First Grading Page 8  Philippine Politics and Governance © JDG STATE v. NATION Introduction This lesson presents the future role of the state, nations, and globalization in political processes. Moreover, give students a profound understanding of the evolution of globalization and the ever changing structure of nation and state. Concept of State A state is a community of persons more or less numerous, permanently occupying a definite portion or territory, having a government of their own to which the great body of inhabitants render obedience, and enjoying freedom from external control. The Philippines is a state. Elements of State The modern state has four essential elements. They are: 1. People – This refers to the inhabitants living within the state. Without people there can be no functionaries to govern and no subjects to be governed. There is no requirement as to the number of people that should compose a state. Ideally, it should be neither too small nor too large: a small enough to be well-governed and large enough to be self-sufficing. The smallest state in point of population is the Vatican. Its estimated 900 citizens, mainly clerics and some Swiss guards, are ruled by the Pope. China is the largest state in point of population place at about 16 billion at the end of 2006 according to China’s National Bureau of Statistics. 2. Territory – it includes not only the fixed portion of land over which the jurisdiction of the state extends (territorial domain), but also the rivers and lakes therein, a certain area of the sea which abuts upon its coasts (fluvial and maritime domain) and the air space above the land and the waters (aerial domain). Thus, the domain of the state may be described as: terrestrial, fluvial, maritime and aerial. Maritime Terms a. Territorial sea – coastal seas have sovereignty, including exclusive fishing rights (12 nautical miles) b. Contiguous zone – coastal state can enforce its customs, immigration, and sanitation laws and exercise “hot pursuit” out of its territorial waters (24 nautical miles) First Grading Page 9  Philippine Politics and Governance © JDG c. Exclusive economic zone – state has recognized rights to explore, exploit, conserve, and manage the natural resources (200 nautical miles) d. Continental shelf – countries have exclusive rights to natural resources up to 350 nautical miles e. High seas – beyond exclusive economic zone, and usually refer to as the “common heritage of human kind.” 3. Government – it refers to the agency through which the will of the state is formulated, expressed and carried out. The word is sometimes used to refer to the person or aggregate of persons in whose hands are placed for the time being the function of political control. This “body of men” is usually spoken as “administration.” The ordinary citizens of a country are a part of the state, but are not part of the government 4. Sovereignty – the term may be defined as the supreme power of the state to command and enforce obedience to its will from people within its jurisdiction and corollarilly, to have freedom from foreign control. It has, therefore, two manifestations: 4.1 internal or the power of the state to rule within its territory 4.2 external or the freedom of the state to carry out its activities without subjection to or control by other states. External sovereignty is often referred to as independence The following are the characteristics of sovereignty: (APEC-AU) a. it is absolute from the legal point of view. (A) b. It is permanent. (P) c. It is exclusive (E) d. It cannot be divided between or shared by a plurality. (C) e. It is alienable. (A) f. It is universal. (U) Origin of State There are several theories concerning the origin of states, among which are: 1. Divine right theory – it holds that the state is of divine creation and the ruler is ordained by God to govern the people 2. Necessity or force theory – it maintains that states must have been created through force, by some great warriors who imposed their will upon the weak 3. Paternalistic theory – it attributes the origin of states to the enlargement of the family which remained under the authority of the father or mother. By natural states, the family grew into a clan, then developed into a tribe which broadened into a nation, and the nation became a state First Grading Page 10  Philippine Politics and Governance © JDG 4. Social control theory – it asserts that the early states must have been formed by deliberate and voluntary compact among the people to form a society and organize government for their common good. This theory justifies the right of the people to revolt against a bad ruler State distinguished from nation Nation should not be confused with state as they are the not the same. 1. The state is a political concept, while nation is an ethnic concept. A nation is a group of people bound together by certain characteristics such as common social origin, language, customs and traditions and who believe that they are one and distinct from others. The term is more strictly synonymous with people. 2. A state is not subject to external control while a nation may or may not be independent of external control. 3. A single state may consist of one or more nations or people and conversely, a single nation may be made up of several states. The United States is a melting pot of several nationalities. On the other hand, the Arab nation is divided politically into several foreign states. Among them are: Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon and others. The Philippines is a state composed of one nation. In common usage, however, the two terms are often used synonymously. The Constitution uses them interchangeably. State distinguished from government In common speech, they are usually regarded as identical. As ordinarily, the acts of the government (within the limits of the delegation of powers) are the acts of the state, the former is meant when the latter is mentioned, and vice versa. The government is only the agency through which the state articulates its will. The former is the agent, the latter is the principal. A state cannot exist without a government, but it is possible to have a government without a state. Thus, we had various governments at different periods of our history, from pre-Spanish times to the present. There was no Philippine state during those periods when we were under foreign domination. A government may change, its form may change, but the state, as long as its essential elements are present, remains the same. Purpose and Necessity of Government 1. Advancement of the public welfare – government exists and should contribute to exist for the benefit of the people governed. It is necessary for: First Grading Page 11  Philippine Politics and Governance © JDG a. Constituent functions - the protection of society and its members, the security of persons and property, the administration of justice, the preservation of the state from external danger, dealings of the state with foreign powers b. Ministrant functions - the advancement of the physical, economic, social and cultural well-being of the people 2. Consequence of absence – government exists to do these things which by their very nature, it is better equipped to administer for the public welfare than any private individual or group of individuals. It is obvious that without an organized structure of government, anarchy and disorder, and a general feeling of fear and insecurity will prevail in society, progress and development will not be possible, and values taken for granted in a free modern society such as truth, freedom, justice, equality, rule of law, and human dignity can never be enjoyed. The need for government is so apparent that even the most primitive societies, history shows, had some form of it. Forms of government The principal forms are the following: 1. As to number of persons exercising sovereign powers: a. Monarchy or one in which the supreme and final authority is in the hands of a single person without regard to the source of his election or the nature or duration of his tenure. Monarchies are further classified into: a.1 Absolute monarchy or one in which the ruler rules by divine right and a.2 Limited monarchy or one in which the ruler rules in accordance with a constitution b. Aristocracy or one in which political power is exercised by a few privileged class which is known as an aristocracy or oligarchy c. Democracy or one in which political power is exercised by a majority of the people. Democratic governments are further classified into: c.1 Direct or pure democracy or one in which the will of the state is formulated or expressed directly and immediately through the people in a mass meeting or primary assembly rather than through the medium of delegates or representatives chosen to act for them c.2 indirect, representative, or republican democracy or one in which the will of the state is formulated and expressed through the agency of a relatively First Grading Page 12  Philippine Politics and Governance © JDG small and select body of persons chosen by the people to act as their representatives 2. As to extent of powers exercised by the central or national government a. Unitary government or one in which the control of national and local affairs is exercised by the central or national government b. Federal government or one in which the powers of government are divided between two sets of organs, one for national affairs and the other for local affairs, each organ being supreme within its own sphere. The United States is a federal government 3. As to relationship between the executive and the legislative branches of the government a. Parliamentary government or one in which the state confers upon the legislature the power to terminate the tenure of office of the real executive. Under this system, the Cabinet or ministry is immediately and legally responsible to the legislature and immediately or politically responsible to the electorate, while the titular or nominal executive – the Chief of State – occupies a position of irresponsibility b. Presidential government or one in which the state makes the executive constitutionally independent of the legislature as regards his tenure and to a large extent as regards his policies and acts, and furnishes him with sufficient powers to prevent the legislature from trenching upon the sphere marked out by the constitution as executive independence and prerogative 4. Citizen participation a. Autocracy – it is a form of government wherein one person possess unlimited power. The citizen has limited, if any, role in government. The leader is from a family or from a social class or from a strong party. Forms of autocratic government 1. Absolute or totalitarian dictatorship – the ideas of a single leader glorified. Government tries to control all aspects of social and economic life. Moreover, the government is not responsible to the people. Thus, the people lack the power to limit their rulers. Examples: Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, Joseph Stalin First Grading Page 13  Philippine Politics and Governance © JDG 2. Absolute monarchy – the king, queen, or emperor exercises the supreme and unlimited powers of government wherein the position is usually inherited. Absolute monarch rules by divine right are rare today but from the 1400s to the 1700s they ruled most of Western Europe Example: King of Saudi Arabia; the concept of absolute monarchy is limited monarchy wherein the ruler has a limited power as mandated by the constitution b. Oligarchy – it is the government by the few. Sometimes a small group exercise control, especially for corrupt and selfish purposes. The group gets its power from military power, social power, wealth, religion or a combination. In here, the citizen has a very limited role. Thus, political opposition is usually suppressed-sometimes violently. Example: Communist countries such as China; leaders in the party and armed forces control government c. Democracy - it is a government based on the consent of the governed. The people are the sovereign, thus, they hold the highest political authority. Citizens have freedom to criticize their leaders because they are the one who elected them in the position. People have a high degree of participation in every government processes. Democracy has two forms: indirect democracy or representative democracy is a form of democratic government wherein the people directly elect their leaders who will govern them and perform governmental functions. Direct democracy is a form of government wherein the people will convene in a mass assembly and directly formulate and expressed the will of the state 5. Legitimacy a. De jure – a form of government wherein it has the peoples’ support and possess constitutional mandate. Therefore, it is a legitimate government b. De facto – a form of government supported by the people but no constitutional mandate or legal support First Grading Page 14  Philippine Politics and Governance © JDG State according to political philosophers Thomas Hobbes John Locke Jean-Jacques Rousseau Men lived in a primitive Man sought peace and Good person was society where there is a preservation of all corrupted. war “of every man, against humanity. every man.” Society is ruled by greed, lust and violence Man’s life was solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and Man produces a standing Nation-state got worse short. rule to live by. Called for the agreement of Out of his condition, the Man entered into contract the citizen to meet and state was born to assure safety and peace discuss difficulties that life, liberty, and To escape this cruel reality, property may be enjoyed to Consensus knew as the men would give up some the fullest. General Will freedom to the state. In return, the government The contract is two-way. would offer people security through law and order Note: John Locke took Hobbes ideas one step further by promoting the “right to revolution.” Locke believed that if the government fails to provide people with security or if the state abused its power over the people could change the government. Inherent powers of the state 1. Police power – power of the state to regulate freedoms and property rights of individuals for the protection of public safety, health and morals or the promotion of the public convenience and general prosperity. This is because the welfare of the people is the supreme law. 2. Eminent domain – power to take private property for public use upon payment of just compensation. It is exercised through national or local government and private persons or corporations authorized to exercise functions of public character 3. Taxation – power to impose tax on individuals and properties to support the government Tax – lifeblood of government Uniform taxation – persons or things belonging to the same class shall be taxed at the same right Equitable taxation – tax burden must be imposed according to the taxpayers capacity to pay First Grading Page 15  Philippine Politics and Governance © JDG Progressive taxation – as the resources of the taxpayer becomes higher his rates likewise increase PHILIPPINE DEMOCRATIC POLITICS The Political History of the Philippines o The Pre-Spanish Government The early Filipinos had a government which they called “balangay.” The head or the leader was called a datu or rajah who was assisted by the elders in the community. All the powers of the government were exercised by the datu or rajah. He was the chief executive, law giver, chief judge and military head. There are three social classes at that time, namely: the maharlika (nobles), the timawas (freemen) and the alipin (slaves). The datu or rajah came from the maharlika. o Government in the Philippines Under the Spanish Colonial Rule The Philippines was governed indirectly by the King of Spain through the Viceroy of Mexico. When Mexico, also a former colony of Spain gained her freedom in 1821, the Philippines was ruled directly by Spain until 1898. The government established in the Philippines was centralized. The national government was headed by a Spanish Governor General, who was appointed by the King of Spain. The Governor General was at times called the “Representative of the King of Spain” or the “Little King in the Philippines.” In theory, he was the highest government official in the country, in practice though frailocracy or the so-called rule of the friars existed thus overpowering the Governor General. Below the national government was the Alcadia (provinces) headed by the Alcalde Mayor, the Pueblos (towns) which were led by the Gobernadorcillo (little governor) and the barangays which were led by the Cabeza de Barangay. Andres Bonifacio organized the Katipunan, a secret revolutionary organization of the Filipinos. Its aim was a complete separation from Spain. It precipitated the Philippine revolution on August 26, 1896. It was replaced by another government when it was discovered by the Spanish authorities. The new government was headed by General Emilio Aguinaldo as President in the Tejeros Convention held on March 22-23, 1897. First Grading Page 16  Philippine Politics and Governance © JDG The Biak na Bato Republic was created by Gen. Aguinaldo on November 1, 1987. Its aim was separation from Spain and formation of the Philippines as an independent state. The Republic existed until December 15, 1897, with the signing of the Pact of Biak-na-Bato. It resulted in the revolutionary exile of Aguinaldo and his men to Hong Kong provided that General Primo de Rivera would pay 800,000 dollars. On May 24, 1898, General Aguinaldo established a dictatorial government when he returned from his exile in Hong Kong. The notable achievements of the Dictatorial Government were: (1) the proclamation of the Philippine independence at Kawit, Cavite on June 12, 1898 and (2) the reorganization of local governments. A revolutionary government replaced the dictatorial government still with Gen. Aguinaldo as the head. On January 23, 1899, the first Philippine Republic was established with Gen. Aguinaldo as the president. o The Government During the American Regime The Americans started the military rule in the Philippines on August 14, 1898. The President of the United States delegated his authority to the military governor who exercised all powers of the government (as long as the war lasted) – executive, legislative and judiciary. The Spooner Amendment ended the military regime in the Philippines. It was changed into civil government headed by the civil governor on July 4, 1901. The title was later changed to governor general on February 6, 1905. The governor general has legislative powers, and he was the president of the Philippine Commission from 1901-1907. The Philippine Commission was the sole law-making body of the government. Eventually, this became the upper house of the legislative department of the Philippine Assembly (created by the Philippine Bill of 1902) as the lower chamber. The Jones Law of 1916 which became the fundamental law for the Philippines vested the legislative power in all Filipino law- making body composed of the Philippine Senate and the House of Representatives. o The Commonwealth Government They Tydings-McDuffie Law in 1934 established the Commonwealth Government. It was a form of government in transition toward independence. It provided for a ten-year transition period after which the Philippine independence would be proclaimed and established. The Commonwealth Government was inaugurated on November 15, 1935. The first national election in the country was held on September 12, 1935. Manuel Quezon was the president, and his vice president was Sergio Osmena. It functioned in exile First Grading Page 17  Philippine Politics and Governance © JDG during World War II in Washington, USA from May 13, 1942 to October 3, 1944, after which was re-established in Manila on February 27, 1945. The USA turned over to a Filipino president the full powers and responsibilities of the Commonwealth Government under the 1935 Constitution. o The Government Under the Japanese Occupation The Japanese military administration was established in Manila on January 3, 1942. A civil government which was called the Philippine Executive Commission was established with Jorge B. Vargas as Chairman. It had legislative and executive powers but laws enacted through were subject to approval by the Commander-in- chief of the Japanese forces. On October 14, 1943, the Japanese-sponsored Philippine republic with Jose P. Laurel as the president was enacted. The ultimate source of authority was the Japanese administrators. It was dissolved on August 17, 1945. First Grading Page 18