Peace Journalism Session 1 PDF

\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Peace Journalism Session 1: Concepts in Peace Journalism Samuel Kochomay (kochomay.edu20.org) Journalism and Mass Communication Nairobi Campus, M...

\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ Peace Journalism Session 1: Concepts in Peace Journalism Samuel Kochomay (kochomay.edu20.org) Journalism and Mass Communication Nairobi Campus, Mount Kenya University \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ **Lecture Outline *(integrates content in Ch1&2 of the module).*** - Course outline - Concepts in Peace Journalism - Conflict - Violence - Peace - Peace Journalism **Peace Journalism Course Outline** 1. Key terms 2. Types of conflict 3. Conflict-orientated war coverage in mainstream media in Africa 4. Conflict-orientated war coverage in mainstream media in Kenya 5. Journalism from conflict zones in Africa 6. Journalism from conflict zones in the Middle East 7. Journalism from conflict zones in the Far East 8. Propaganda and media strategies 9. Globalization of war- and conflict 10. Orientalism and Occidentalism 11. Ethical and regulatory issues **Concepts in Peace Journalism** - Conflict - Violence - Peace - Peace Journalism **Concept\#1 Conflict** Conflict is a human interaction phenomenon present in work place, communities and among nations. media stories are largely about conflicts at various levels of our society often arising from cultural, natural resources and perceptions of inequalities. **Conflict has been defined as:** 1. "an expressed struggle between at least two independent parties who pursue incompatible goals, scarce rewards (resources) and interference from the other parties in achieving their goals (Adler & Towne 1992, 359). 2. "the clash of opposing attitudes, desires, interests, ideas, behaviours, goals and needs" (Verderber & Verderber, 1986, p. 177). From the definitions, a human interaction can be considered conflict if it bears these features: - Must have at least two parties (individuals, groups, nations, institutions etc). - There is a subject of contestation (goals, rewards, interests, attitudes, needs - There is perception of struggle - - - - Each party attempts to reduce their other's chances of success and bolster their own (source of struggle). - **Types of Conflicts** *Oyeniyi (2011) typology (conflicts in Africa):* - *Elite conflicts -* arise out of interests in appointments, policy, bureaucratic posts etc. Appeasing these interests are often through policy shifts, distribution of bureaucratic posts and appointments, and these have more often led to rapid growth of state machinery e.g. Kibaki's bloated cabinet during the 2008-2013 term. - *Factional Conflicts* - main goal of factional politics is to influence politics at the centre by causing shift in the formation of power structure and having hand in who rules in the political centre. are linked to elite who mobilize their constituencies to cause the centre to recognize their ethno-regional interests and to come to the table, where they can cause some influence. Intervention - - *Communal and mass conflicts -* these conflicts question legitimacy of the regime and the essential of state power by challenging the state's territorial integrity and objecting the distribution of power e.g. Kenya's post-election violence that prompted enactment of new constitution that entrenched representation of ethnic and minority in the institutions of state - *[Revolutionary Conflicts -]* are threat to legitimacy of the state power as they attempt to provide "alternative political visions" with coherent and vividly communicated outcomes often based on "clearly defined set of organizing principles" -- Kenya's Gen-Z. - *Foreign Interventions conflicts -* from slave trade through colonialism and cold war, there have been "self-interested" interventions that pitted African states against each other and divided them along the East-West loyalties. These interventions have either escalated, prolonged and increased intensify of the conflicts. **Overt and covert conflicts.** Overt conflicts refer violent expression of conflicts e.g. war (interethnic, interstate) and terrorism. - War refers to armed conflict between ethnic groups, states, or groups of states. The conflicts in the *Oyeniyi* typology may or may not develop to violent expression. - terror and terrorism are incompatible with peace and pacification efforts and activities. Terrorism by states (terrorism from above) and by non-state actors (terrorism from below) to cause anxiety, apathy and fear in terrorized people for the purpose of influencing another **Attitudes towards conflict** - Conflict as negative - leads to losses, pain, trauma and creates apathy of the society. - Conflict as positive - it is an expression of changing society; it points the need for change to meet the new challenges and take on the new opportunities. **Levels of conflict** Ramsbotham (2011) levels of conflicts: - Intra-personal (inner conflict/within self), - Interpersonal(dyadic), - Intergroup (families, neighbourhoods, ethnic, racial, religious and other affiliations). - International (America vs. Iraq; Rwanda vs. DRC) - Regional (Amisom troops in Somalia), - Global (Syrian conflict pitting US vs. Russia and their allies), and the complex interplays between them. **Tahir's typology (2009) - three levels of conflict:** - *Po**tentiality*** **-** possible conflicts - the realm of potential opposing vectors of power. - *Disposition and powers* - potentialities get transformed into tendencies toward specificity and their strength to be so manifest. Two facets(dimensions) of conflict at this level - a *conflict-structure* of those dispositions opposing each other within the conflict space; and the *conflict-situation* consisting of opposing powers, and their indeterminate balancing. - *Manifestations -* overt conflict level, where the opposition of powers is specific. This process has three facets: - opposing attempts to produce effects, that is, opposing powers; - the balancing of these powers; and - the actual balance of powers. Sources of conflict ------------------- - Depending on the parties and the nature of the conflict, generally, the sources of conflicts include ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - Disruption of the traditional economies, cultural, social and political systems, structural inequalities (income, political and resource/income distribution), -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- - Fear of change, --------------- - Information, ------------ - Insufficient resources, ----------------------- - Competition for power (politics), values, attitudes, beliefs, and ethical choices ( ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Causes of Conflict** categories of causes of conflicts: - *institutional and Political factors:* weak state institutions, elite power struggles and political exclusion, breakdown in social contract and corruption, identity politics - *Socioeconomic factors:* inequality, exclusion and marginalisation, absence or weakening of social cohesion, poverty - *Resource and environmental factors:* greed, scarcity of national resources often due to population growth leading to environmental insecurity, unjust resource exploitation *Each of these factors may constitute a cause, dynamic and/or impact of conflict.* +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | ***Conflict Phases | | | | and Interventions*** | | | | | | | | *Brahm (2003) | | | | conflict cycle/phases | | | | model/framework (see | | | | the graphic in the | | | | module)* | | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | *CONFLICT PHASE* | *FEATURES* | *CONFLICT | | | | INTERVENTIONS* | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Latent conflict | - The conflict may | Conflict prevention | | | not become | | | | apparent until a | - Mediation of | | | \"triggering | disputes among | | | event\" leads to | community group | | | the emergence | and with outsider | | | | | | | - Key features: | - Consensus | | | | building with | | | - tensions, | stakeholders over | | | | design of | | | - Jealousy | interventions or | | | within the | livelihood | | | parties is | projects | | | evident, | | | | | - Local capacity | | | - Increasing | building in | | | scarcity of | conflict | | | common | management skills | | | property, | | | | | | | | - Everyday | | | | conversations | | | | include | | | | complaints | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Emergence | - Non-violent | Conflict mitigation | | | confrontation - | | | | observable | - Provision of | | | beginning of | humanitarian | | | conflict | relief | | | | | | | - Emergence may be | - Management of | | | followed quickly | refugee | | | by settlement or | managements | | | resolution | | | | | - Mediation of | | | - Features: | violent conflicts | | | | between the | | | - Communication | parties | | | channels shut | | | | down, | - Multi-track | | | | negotiations | | | - Lines of | | | | separation | | | | develop and | | | | taking sides | | | | become common | | | | (us vs. | | | | Them), | | | | | | | | - Political | | | | leaders to | | | | emerge, | | | | structural | | | | conflicts | | | | surface, | | | | | | | | - Parties lose | | | | confidence in | | | | customary | | | | mechanism and | | | | turn to legal | | | | and | | | | institutional | | | | mechanisms | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Escalation/ crisis: | - If not resolved | - | | | emergent conflict | | | | progresses to | | | | escalation, which | | | | can become very | | | | destructive; | | | | | | | | - [Features:]{.unde | | | | rline} | | | | | | | | - Sections of | | | | population | | | | mobilize on | | | | behalf of the | | | | cause, | | | | | | | | - Open | | | | expression of | | | | anger and | | | | hostility, | | | | conversations | | | | include | | | | demands and | | | | threats, | | | | | | | | - Emergence of | | | | new groups | | | | and new | | | | issues, | | | | allies join | | | | the parties, | | | | | | | | - Violence- | | | | sporadic | | | | attacks and | | | | progression | | | | to | | | | coordinated | | | | attacks; | | | | | | | | - Deadlock | | | | develops; | | | | | | | | - Escalation, | | | | however, | | | | cannot | | | | continue | | | | indefinitely; | | | | from | | | | escalation | | | | the conflict | | | | either moves | | | | to stalemate | | | | or | | | | de-escalation | | | |. | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Stalemate | - A situation in | | | | which neither | | | | side can win. If | | | | the pain of | | | | continuing the | | | | conflict exceeds | | | | that of | | | | maintaining the | | | | confrontation | | | | (hurting | | | | stalemate), | | | | | | | | - It often presents | | | | an ideal | | | | opportunity for | | | | negotiation and a | | | | potential | | | | settlement. | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | De-escalation | - Can be temporary | Peacebuilding | | | or can be part of | | | | a broader trend | - Infrastructure | | | toward settlement | reconstruction at | | | or resolution of | the community | | | the conflict | level | | | | | | | | - Community-based | | | | socio-economic | | | | rehabilitation | | | | projects | | | | | | | | - Structural and | | | | legal reform | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Settlement | - If and when an | | | | agreement is | | | | reached, | | | | peacebuilding | | | | efforts work to | | | | repair damaged | | | | relationships | | | | with the | | | | long-term goal of | | | | reconciling | | | | former opponents. | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | Post conflict | - This phase | | | peacebuilding | involves | | | | rehabilitation of | | | | destruction that | | | | resulted from the | | | | conflict. It is | | | | also aimed at | | | | addressing the | | | | root causes of | | | | the conflict to | | | | prevent it from | | | | reverting to | | | | latter stages. | | | | | | | | - Development, | | | | psychotrauma | | | | services and | | | | socio- | | | | | | | | - Economic | | | | rehabilitation | | | | projects as well | | | | structural | | | | reforms are | | | | undertaken | | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ **Concept\#2 Violence (see concept\#3)** - Violence refers to an act of aggression whether physical or non-physical. - Three types of violence: a. Direct violence: hitting, shooting, rape etc. b. Cultural violence: hate speech, xenophobia, religious justifications for war etc. c. Structural violence: apartheid, colonialism, occupation etc. **Concept\#3 Peace** - Peace is used to suggest the state of calm, and/or absence of conflict - Peace has been defined as the absence of violence in all of its forms and the presence of mutually beneficial cooperation and mutual learning - When the four human needs (survival, economic well-being, freedom and identity) are threatened by forms of violence identified above (in concept\#2), it turns into conflict. - Peace, on the other hand occurs with the absence of these forms of violence ('negative peace'), and the presence of activities to bring relief for past or present violence and to prevent future violence ('positive peace'). - In his conceptualization of peace, Galtung when the 4 human needs: [survival], [economic well-being], [freedom] and [identity which are] threatened by forms of violence (direct violence, structural violence and cultural violence) it leads to conflict. - Types of violence and tools used: a. *Direct violence --*hitting, hurting and killing people, shooting, rape etc. Tools -- military power b. *Structural violence I(misery)* --outcomes of unjust structures(policies) in society that **detain people in state of misery e.g.** slow death resulting of lack of access to food, diseases(preventable) and other suffering. Tools - Economic power c. *Structural violence II(oppression)-* people are deprived freedom to and participation in decisions that directly and indirectly affect their lives. Tools - Political power d. *Cultural violence --* justification of violence through nationalism (xenophobia), racism, religion, ethnicity (hate speech), sexism and many other modes of discrimination. Tools -- cultural power Negative Peace and Positive Peace - Using absence of violence against the 4 human needs, Galtung identified 8 components of peace divided into positive peace and negative. - Negative peace refers to the absence of the four forms of violence whereas positive peace refers to the presence of activities to address past, present and prevent potential violence in future. +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Negative and | | | | Positive Peace** | | | +=======================+=======================+=======================+ | | **Negative peace** | **Positive peace** | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Survival:** absence | Absence of direct | Life-enhancing | | of direct violence | violence: | cooperation and | | caused by military | | | | power | ceasefires, | prevention of direct | | | disarmament, | violence: | | | prevention of | | | | terrorism and state | peace-building, | | | terrorism, | conflict | | | nonviolence | transformation, | | | | reconciliation and | | | | reconstruction | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Development(economi | Humanitarian aid, | Building a | | c | food aid, | life-sustaining | | wellbeing):** absence | | economy at the local, | | of structural | alleviation of | national and global | | violence I caused by | poverty and misery | level in which | | economic power | | everyone's basic | | | | needs are met | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Freedom:** absence | Liberation from | Good governance and | | of structural | oppression, | | | violence II caused by | | participation, | | political power | occupation, | self-determination, | | | dictatorship | | | | | human rights | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Peace culture** | Overcoming prejudice | Promotion of a | | (identity): absence | based on | culture of peace | | of | | | | | nationality, race, | and mutual learning; | | cultural violence | language, gender, | global | | caused by cultural | | | | | age, class, religion, | communication and | | power | etc.; elimination of | dialogues; | | | the glorification of | | | | war and violence in | development of | | | the media, | peaceful deep | | | literature, films, | cultures and deep | | | monuments, etc. | structures; peace | | | | education; peace | | | | journalism | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ **Concept\#4 Peace Journalism** - Some scholars in support of PJ: Blaise (2004), Hackett (2006), Keeble, Tulloch & Zollman (2010), Lynch & Mc­Goldrick (2005), Ross & Tehranian (2009), and Shinar (2007) - journalists: Martin Bell, Tom Geltjen and Michael Nicholson Peace journalism has been defined as: a. A "special mode of socially responsible journalism", a "programme or frame of journalistic news coverage which contributes to the process of making and keeping peace" (Hanitzsch, 2004, p.484). b. "Responsible and conscientious media cov­erage of conflict, that aims at contributing to peace-making, peacekeeping, and changing the attitudes of media owners, ad­vertisers, professionals, and audiences towards war and peace" (Shinar, 2007). c. Journalism that "gives a voice to the voiceless, focuses on the invisible effects of violence (trauma and glory, damage to social structures), aims to expose untruths on all sides, and attempts to arrive at a solution to the conflict (Keeble et al 2010, p.2). d. Journalism practice that occurs "when editors and reporters make choices -- of what stories to report and about how to report them -- that create opportunities for society at large to consider and value non-violent responses to conflict"( Lynch & McGoldrick, 2005, p.5). +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **War Journalism Vs and Peace | | | Journalism** | | +===================================+===================================+ | **War Journalism** | **Peace journalism** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - Focus on the conflict | - Peace-orientated (explore | | (visible effects of the | conflict formation, aim to | | conflict is reported) | pre­vent conflict) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - Be propaganda-orientated | - Truth-orientated (expose | | (expose 'their' un­truths, | untruths on all sides) | | conceal 'ours') | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - Present elite voices | - People-orientated (focus on | | | suffering all over, focus on | | | peacemak­ers as people) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | - Portray victory over the | - Solution-orientated | | enemy as the end goal. | (highlight peace initiatives, | | | present solutions rather than | | | ways to victory). | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Good practices in peace journalism** - Focussing on presenting solutions - Report­ing on long-term effects - Orientating the news on people and the grassroots - Searching for common ground - Reporting on and naming wrong-doers on all sides (disaggregating the 'us' and 'them' into smaller groups, - Avoiding victimising lan­guage such as 'devastated', 'defenceless' and 'pathetic', - Avoid­ing imprecise use of emotive words such as 'tragedy', 'massacre' etc. - Avoiding demonising adjectives and labels such as 'brutal', 'barbaric', 'terrorist' and 'fanatic', and - Avoid making an opin­ion or claim seen as an established fact. **Roles that media can play in reporting violence constructively** - Channelling communication between parties - Educating - Building - Counteracting misperceptions - Analysing conflict - De-objectifying the protagonists for each other - Identifying the interests underlying the issues - Pro­viding an emotional outlet - Encouraging a balance of power - Framing and defining the conflict - Face-saving and con­sensus building and - Solution building. **Duties peace journalism** 1. Duty to understand conflict -- generally, phases, resolutions, rules of war... 2. Duty to report fairly -- fair, balanced, report of all factions 3. Duty to report background and causes of a conflict -- accurate representation of legitimate and perceived grievances. 4. Duty to present the human side -- human stories of loss, trauma, need in a balanced, professional and non-exploitative manner. 5. Duty to report on peace efforts -- peace and reconciliation efforts, reporting peace as well as war efforts 6. Duty to recognize our influence -avoid being used one side or the other; expose attempts at media manipulation **Criticism of Peace journalism** 1. Peace journalism goes against and/or undermines the basic journalist principle of objectivity (Weaver 1998; MacLaugh­lin, 2002; Lyon, 2003) 2. Peace journalism epistemologically draws from naïve realism: the idea that media dis­torts the truths about the conflict -- it distorts reality (Ha­nitzsch, 2004, p.488); 3. Peace journalism overestimates the power of the me­dia and based on an outdated conceptualization from the early 20th century and ignores the impact of interpersonal communication and social structure (Hanitzsch 2004; Gauntlett, 1998, 2005) 4. Peace journalism disregards audience preference, and that is a risk to media organizations economic existence (Hanitzsch, 2004, p.489). **Conflict Analysis** - **Although it is journalist's cardinal principle to seek to as much as possible understand the context within which an incidence has occurred, in conflict reporting a journalist needs to understand the conflict context and in so doing needs to conduct a conflict analysis.** - ***Conflict analysis*** is a systematic study of profile, causes, actors and dynamics of conflicts. - Elements of Conflict Analysis: *profile, causes, actors and dynamics*. a. *Profile* - Provides brief characterization of the context within which the conflict is happening and the interventions. - Ongoing and emergent political, economic and socio-cultural context and issues. establish the conflict prone or affected areas within the context as well as the history of the conflict. b. *Causes of conflict* - Factors which contribute to people's grievances. - Analysis involves identifying conflict causes and possible factors that contribute to peace. - Causes: structural causes, proximate causes, triggers, factors prolonging conflict and factors contributing to peace. - Structural causes - pervasive factors that have become built into policies, structures and fabric of society and may create pre-conditions for violent conflict. - The proximate causes - factors contributing to a climate conducive to violent conflict or its escalation - Triggers refer to single key acts, events or their anticipation that will set off or escalate violent conflict. c. *Conflict actors* - looks at those engaged in or affected by conflict including individuals, groups and institutions. - analysis seek to establish the main actors; the actors' main interests, goals, positions, capacities and relationships; institutional capacities for peace as well as actors identified as spoilers. d. *Dynamics* - Looks at dynamics resulting from interactions between the actors, profile and the causes to provide a complete picture of interactions leading to the existing conflict situation.