PDM 2 A2 Notes PDF

PDM semester 2 Chapter 2 Public administration in a democratic developmental state Intro The primary ambition of contemporary government and therefore government officials within democratic developmental state is to determine, acknowledge and prioritise the developmental n...

PDM semester 2 Chapter 2 Public administration in a democratic developmental state Intro The primary ambition of contemporary government and therefore government officials within democratic developmental state is to determine, acknowledge and prioritise the developmental needs of a society. A government therefore becomes a critical role player within a specific landscape that can be recognised as the State. P(p)ublic A(a)dministration as a discipline and as an area of operation shapes the main thrust behind democratic and developmental initiatives within a state. Public admin is concerned with the organisational relationship and the complex dilemma of integrating areas that relate to: 1) The citizen 2) The structure of government 3) Society and the economy 4) The human factor in administration 5) Techniques and Values 6) Stages of national development 7) Levels of operation 8) The ingredients that constitute the synthesis of public administration as a contemporary function adopts the following roles 1) The preservation of a form or process of civil government 2) Maintenance of stability and order 3) Institutionalisation of socio-economic change 4) Management of large-scale commercial services 5) Protection of the weaker sections of society 6) Formalisation of public opinion 7) Influencing public policies and political trends The state as a concept A state features four characteristics of which not all four are required to be present for an authentic, unchallenged form of state to exist. 1.Territoriality: a state is geographically based and bordered 2.Sovereignty: A state is superior by nature, relative to every other group,confines of its authority and control and is relevant to its population  3.Legitimacy: The authority of the State is acknowledged both nationally and internationally 4. Monopoly of government: The institutions of the State have exclusive control over public decision-making and enforcement Dimensions ain a developmental state Three dimensions in the landscape of a developmental state 1. Political dimension Where the political affairs of state are based, as it is influenced by national and international, political, economic and social influences. State building, the rule of law and democracy as elements related to political dimension in a developmental state. 2. Economic dimension Concerns itself with the economic welfare of a state and its citizens. It is recognised as a collection of policies that accentuate national control of the economy, labour and capital formation. The economic dimension in a developmental state would promote a sustained, rapid economic growth and enable facilitation or redistribution. Partnerships among the public sector are high priorities to national developmental goals. 3. Social dimension Include nation-building, national identity, social equity and social capital. The primary objective of the act of nation-building is to unite the citizens within a state that would result in political stability as well as sustained prosperity and independence of such a state. A democratic state Characteristics of democracy include: Rule by the people – citizens are enabled to actively participate in the direction of the nation People matter in politics – citizens are actively involved in politics and civil elections Democracy protects the rights of humans and their freedom, offers security of person and property, and establishes the rule of law A developmental state A developmental state is characterised as a certain kind of actor, which pursues a certain kind of ambition using a certain kind of power (Loriaux, 1999).  A certain kind of actor: a state’s public sector should display a particular character, responsibility and skilful ability to steer a developmental agenda Pursues a certain kind of ambition: the main aspiration would be for a state to display continued, steady, high proportions of economic growth as final pursuit Using a certain kind of power: enable organisational existence, analyse, formulate and implement policies Pubic administration in a developmental state The public sector takes the role of a vehicle or an enabler that should facilitate the developmental priorities and outcomes of South Africa as a democratic developmental state. According to Myrdal, a soft or weak state has the following characteristics: There is a lack of obedience to rules and directives applicable to officials on political and administrative level Officials have partnerships with powerful individuals and groups whose conduct they regulate There is lack of government capacity and political resolve to promote economic development Lack of social discipline A hard state is a tyrannical state that abuses authority and that is doing so. Forfeits the willful loyalty and truthful support of citizens. A developmental state is one whose ideological underpinnings are developmental and one that seriously attempts to construct resources for change  A developing state is a state that reflects low standards of living as well as a weak industrial foundation and low developmental index A developed state as a natural form of the political organisation of a super complex society The mature state as one that surpasses the developed state with regard to society level of complexity and efficiency levels with a highly professional government Chapter 3 The intergovernmental structure of the state: national , provincial and local Introduction The principle factor in the formation of any system has been a common external threat in response to which people have joined together in voluntary unions to defend themselves These alliances were directed towards an actual or potential enemy and the agreement on which an alliance was based formally in an informal understanding Alliances involved cooperation and the consolidation of capabilities and the willingness to protect often turned into a desire to form a government. Intergovernmental relations Intergovernmental relations are important interactions occurring among governmental institutions in all spheres. The distinctive features of intergovernmental relations suggest the increased complexity and interdependency of political systems. Intergovernmental relations are intended to promote and facilitate cooperative decision-making and to ensure that policies and activities across all spheres encourage service delivery and meet the needs of the citizens in an effective way. Intergovernmental relations characteristics The distinctive nature of spheres of government The interrelatedness of the spheres of government The relationship through regulation, monitoring, support and intervention The interdependence of the spheres of government in terms of constitutional, financial, political and information or resources Co-operative government Cooperative government represents the basic values of a government as well as the implementation of these values through the establishment of structures and institutions. Cooperative government is a partnership among the spheres of government requiring each government to fulfil a specific role. Cooperative government does not ignore differences of approach and viewpoints but encourages healthy debate to address the need of the people they represent by making use of the resources available to government Intergovernmental relations Encompass all the complex and interdependent relations among various spheres of government. Co-operative government Represents the basic values of government. The fundamental philosophy of government (constitutional norm) that governs all aspects and activities of government Unitary state Implies a state within which all authority is concentrated within a national government and where other levels are seen as subordinates to the national government Federal state Power is constitutionally divided between a national government and governments of the constituent, state or provinces Intergovernmental relations in south Africa The liberation movements were initially opposed to a federal model of government and advocated a unitary state. They argued that only a centralised unitary state could have the strength and resources to engage in the massive process of social, economic transformation that lay ahead. Fragmenting and dispersing authority would make decision-making more difficult and undermine the capacity to achieve reconstruction and development Nature of intergovernmental relations in a developing state The focus of government was directed at promoting a common understanding that the new democratic SA would have to be a developmental one and that policies need to redress the past imbalances through integrated, participatory and partnership-orientated governance. Thus, South Africa is a quasi-federal country as it is a unitary state with federal tendencies and specific governance arrangements, based on a system of co- operative governance A system of intergovernmental relations is crucial in assisting government to: set, execute and monitor key development priorities regarding the creation of work combating poverty and re-enforcing national pride given the relative autonomy of provincial and local government in key areas of social service delivery centralisation and decentralisation Centralisation: The concentration of power and authority within a centralised unit, central organisation – a structural phenomenon which indicates that authority resides on a higher level. Decentralisation: Dissemination of functions and authority from the national government to subnational or sub-organisational units (regarded as a necessary component of democracy because of the principle of responsiveness) Decentralisation in context 1. When subordinate authorities are established by a national authority and functions delegated to it 2. Division of revenue takes place from a higher authority to a lower authority 3. Provincial institutions are established to perform a single governmental function 4. Powers are assigned to a subordinate government by a national government 5. Discretionary powers are delegated to a specific political office bearer by the legislative authority  6. Regulatory measures exist in respect of capital expenditure by various governmental bodies Composition of a state and allocation of functions South Africa is divided into three spheres of government namely: the national, provincial and local. A sphere connotes a vision of a non-hierarchical government in which each government sphere has equal status, is autonomous and possess constitutional latitude. The principles of cooperative governance and intergovernmental relations recognises the interdependence of the three spheres and places a duty on the spheres of government to respect each other’s powers, functions and to inform each other of new policies. Characteristics of Co-operative Governance Distinctive: means that the Constitution allocates specific functions and powers to each sphere of government which has final decision-making power on those matters Interrelated: means that the exercise of autonomy by a sphere of government is related to functions performed by another sphere of government Interdependent: means that each sphere must exercise its authority to promote common good of the country by cooperating with other spheres, that is by noting the effects of its operations on the functions of other spheres Three separate yet equally important branches of government have to safeguard the interests of the South African society. The Legislature where laws and policy decisions are made through a process of debate among representatives of political parties as voted by citizens. The Executive that gives effect to and implements the decisions as made by the Legislature. The third branch, the Judiciary, fulfils the very important role of independence where the laws of the country are interpreted, upheld and enforced. Coordinating mechanisms Examples of intergovernmental relations functions in SA: 1. Dispute settlement 2. Consultation and information sharing 3. Supervision, monitoring, support and intervention IGR: Information, Sharing and Consultation The three spheres of government are required to inform each other of and consult (active dialogue) with one another when matters of common interests are at stake. Consultation may occur when joint decision making takes place implying that the decision should reflect the views of all parties consulted or when non- binding recommendations need to be considered (after consultation with) the relevant parties. Consultation between the three spheres should occur timeously to enable the parties involved to make appropriate inputs by following correct procedure. The sharing of information among spheres of government is concerned with laws, executive orders, legislative and procedures pertaining to the controlling and access of information. IGR: Supervision, Monitoring, Support and Intervention Provinces and municipalities are subject to the monitoring, support and intervention powers of national and provincial government respectfully within constitutionally prescribed limits. Monitoring in Intergovernmental relations: refers to both the monitoring of the overall system and its performance, as well as to the measurement of legal compliance and performance of one sphere by another Monitoring is the periodic oversight of a process or the implementation of an activity with the purpose to determine to what extent the objectives within an organisation are achieved so that timely action can be taken to correct any deficiencies that are detected Support: refers to measures of assistance to ensure another sphere is able to perform adequately. See Page 68 for examples Intervention: is the unilateral interference by one sphere in the affairs of another sphere in order to remedy an unacceptable situation See examples of Section 100 and 139 interventions Chapter 4 Functioning between the branches of government : ensuring democracy Introduction ▪ The idea of a developmental state is that the State, inter alia, must meet the basic needs of a distinctive and multi-cultural citizenry and in doing so, ensure the redress of past socio-economic imbalances. ▪ This notion focuses on government intervention in the production of goods and services. ▪ The overall service delivery system is developed and institutionalised in the Presidency which vests all policies prior to them being explored and improved by the Executive and Parliament. Structure of national government ▪ The Constitution, 1996, states that South Africa is a constitutional democracy. ▪ It protects the citizens rights promotes democratic principles, sets out the system of government. Functioning of the Legislative Branch ▪ The legislature approves public policies, authorises the laws and monitors the work of the departments and other organs of the State. ▪ The national legislature comprises the National Assembly (NA) and the National Council of Provinces (NCOP). ▪ Two important legislation related to functioning of Parliament are the Money Bills Amendment Procedure and related Act (2009) and Financial Management of Parliament Act (2013) Composition ▪ Composed on 400 members directly elected, through party list system, by universal suffrage for a term of five years. ▪ The composition of the NA is determined by proportional representation (PR). (see page 79 for definition of PR). ▪ The NA can amend the Constitution ▪ Pass legislation with regard to any matter ▪ Oversee the operations of the National executive ▪ It is the responsibility of the legislative branch (Parliament) to approve policies contained in laws to give legal effect to the policies based on the legislation Presiding officers and office bearers ▪ The presiding officers of the NA are the Speaker and the Deputy Speaker. They act as chairs and ensure order is maintained during deliberations in the NA.  ▪ The presiding officers together with the Chief Whips and other whips from the other parties represented in the NA decide on the programme for Parliament. ▪ They represent their party’s interests by ensuring the discipline of their members and the effective functioning of their party inside and outside the Legislature ▪ There are two Chief Whips who are the official office bearers , one represents the majority party and the other represents the larger minority party in the legislature. Role, powers and functions ▪ The NA directly elects the President from among its members. ▪ The NA also has the power to remove him or her from office by a vote of no- confidence or by impeachment. ▪ The President may be removed by the NA by a resolution adopted by a two thirds majority of members on the following grounds: ▪ Serious violation of the Constitution or law ▪ Serious misconduct ▪ Inability to perform the functions of office Immunities and privileges ▪ The most important part of parliamentary privilege is the right to freedom of speech in the legislature ▪ It is the responsibility of each member not to misuse the right. ▪ The Speaker ensures the immunity that members have from court proceedings for remarks made during debates. ▪ It encompasses the power to discipline members of Parliament for breaches of the House Rules in order to protect the legislative processes from interference by the Executive National council of provinces ( NCOP) ▪ The NCOP ensures that the 9 provinces and local government sphere have a direct vote in Parliament when laws are being made. ▪ The NCOP represents the provinces and ensures that their interests are taken into account in the policies and actions of government. ▪ The NCOP achieves this by providing a national forum for public consideration of issues affecting provinces. ▪ The NCOP has a role in promoting national unity and good working relationship among the three spheres of government Composition ▪ 90 delegates, 10 members from each of the 9 provinces  ▪ The provincial legislature selects them on the basis of PR (proportional representation) to reflect a party’s support in each province. ▪ This guarantees a balance of interests among the provinces. ▪ Premiers head their provincial delegation to the NCOP sessions. ▪ In addition, the NCOP appoints a delegation of the South African Local Government Association (SALGA) ▪ They participate in debates when local government matters are discussed in the NCOP. Roles, powers and functions ▪ The NCOP must conduct its business in an open manner, and hold its sittings, and those of its committees in public ▪ When bills are passed, the role of the NCOP is to represent the interests of provinces and those of municipalities as the operational units of local government ▪ The NCOP promotes good working relationships amongst national, provincial and local government ▪ The NCOP delegates represent their political parties and their provinces. Immunities and privileges ▪ The NCOP members have freedom of speech in the Council and its committees, subject to its rules and orders ▪ The salaries, allowances and benefits payable to permanent NCOP members are a direct charge against the National Revenue Fund Committees of parliament ▪ Most of the work of the NA and NCOP is done in committees consisting of members of all political parties represented in the two houses. ▪ The committees deal with the rules and issues relating to the work of each member of the Executive and the departments within his or her portfolio. ▪ The committee plays a vital role in the process of building democracy and public involvement in the Legislative Types of committees 1. First group traditionally correspond to the Portfolio Committee (that are the departments) assigned to ministers in the Cabinet. Portfolio committees in the National Assembly oversee government department activities, results achieved and progress. 2. The second is the Oversight Committee.  A good example is the Standing Committee on Public Accounts (SCOPA) which performs the crucial role of ensuring that the institutions with access to state funding are financially accountable for the operations. 3. The third type is Joint Committees Joint committees comprise of members from the NA and the NCOP. They have specific mandate relating to transversal issues such as disability, women and youth. 4. The fourth type is the committee on private members’ legislative proposals and special petitions. 5. The fifth type of Ad-Hoc Committee. Parliament, when necessary, establishes Ad-Hoc Committees to assist in its investigation of cross-cutting issues and they are disbanded upon the submission and adoption of their reports. Functions of committee ▪ Initiating the need for legislation ▪ Debating and amending legislation and policy documents submitted to the Legislative ▪ Monitoring the departments, they oversee ▪ Investigating and making recommendations on the budgets on these departments ▪ Holding public hearings or asking for submissions on important bills ▪ Investigating any function of a member of the Executive (Cabinet) and its department, which includes summoning ministers and any department official to appear before the relevant committee to supply information Oversight committees ▪ Parliament is required to promote the constitutional values of accountability as well as control the law it passes ▪ The oversight function of Parliament is a central tenant of democracy. ▪ Parliament ensures that the Executive is carrying out its mandate by monitoring the implementation of its legislated policy ▪ Accountability is designed to encourage transparent government. ▪ It enhances public confidence in government and ensures that government is responsive to the people it governs. Oversight on policy matters ▪ Types of oversight exercised vary depending on the relevant portfolio a minister is responsible for.  ▪ A key oversight activity is control over the laws Parliament passes and the implementation by the Executive. ▪ The executive must justify to Parliament its policies and decisions. ▪ Monitoring and evaluating service delivery is the most important part of the activities of portfolio and oversight committees. ▪ Oversight committees are also expected to conduct on-site visits and to establish from officials the progress or problems in implementing policies and legislation. Oversight on legislative matters ▪ Portfolio committees determine their own work programmes in accordance with their powers and standing rules. ▪ Ongoing constructive engagement between committees and departments assists in developing workable programmes. ▪ Committees and departments jointly require reorientation themselves to prevent possible mutual distrust towards the monitoring evaluation of service delivery. ▪ The obligation to redress grievances by taking steps in remedy any defects in policy and legislation are mandatory for effective accountability. Oversight over budget matters ▪ The plans, programmes and projects which are to be carried out by departments are more important than the details of spending and therefore, portfolio committee members need not be experts on the issue of budgets. ▪ They need to debate the effects of performance on each budget vote. They may also take issue with the lack of delivery in terms of the previous year’s projections. ▪ This makes departments budgets a valid starting point for exercising oversight over the Executive. ▪ Budgetary oversight is captured by the notion of explanatory responsibility which requires the officials to give reasons and explanation for the actions taken. Functioning of the executive branch ▪ It is overall responsibility is to develop new policies and laws and to implement them ▪ The executive branch of the national government accounts to the legislative branch through annual reports, budget votes and responses to parliamentary questions. ▪ The executive branch is made up of the President, Deputy President and the Deputy Ministers.  President The executive powers are vested in the Head of State with overall authority to: 1. Assent to and sign bills 2. Refer a bill back to the NA for reconsideration if the constitutionality is questioned 3. Refer a bill to the Constitutional Court for a decision on its constitutionality 4. Appoint Commissions of Inquiry 5. Call a national referendum in terms of an act of Parliament 6. Receive and recognise foreign diplomatic and consular representatives 7. Appoint Ambassadors, Consular Representatives 8. Pardon or reprieve offenders and remit any fines, penalties and confer honours Deputy president The President appoints the Deputy President from among the members of the NA The President assigns particular powers and functions to the DP who must assist the President in the running of the government He or she represents the Cabinet in Parliament In consultation with the Chief Whip, the DP plays a critical role in deciding on the programme of the Legislature and ensure that government business is dealt with and properly sychronised Cabinet Composition The Cabinet as the Executive is established in terms of Section 91 (1) of the Constitution Its members include the President, the Deputy President and Ministers appointed by the President They serve at his or her pleasure and can be replaced due to non-performance or not giving effect to government’s policies President may select no more than two ministers who are not members of the NA Roles ,powers and functions Cabinet implements government policies by considering questions which require collective advice of ministers either because they raise major policy implications or because if implemented, they may cause public criticism. Several matters may be referred to the Cabinet as follows:  Financial proposals on the imposition of taxes and fees New expenditure which might lead to any commitment against the general revenue Recommendations for certain appointments Draft legislation Any proposals involving serious implications in policy implementation Ministerial responsibilities and accountability The President allocates specific responsibilities or portfolios to Ministers. Authority is a prerequisite of responsibility as it suggests that Ministers are empowered to act on behalf of their departments Ministers must table reports in the NA on the performance of their departments. They: Explain matters of current interest to the NA Answer questions on matters of public concern Keep the public informed through the release of any relevant information which may help improve the image of government Defend and justify the voting of funds for service delivery Oversight of national departments The overall supervision of the implementation of policy in departments is the function of ministers. Departments administratively are headed by Director-General (DGs) whose duty is to advise Ministers on matters of policy falling within their scope of their portfolios, coordinate and implement policies; put forward their own proposals based on the knowledge of the department responsibilities for constructive action. Ministers have to obtain information from officials on the implementation plans, obtain regular progress reports and be briefed on problems that are encountered in executing policies The judicial branch The judiciary is the branch which interprets laws The judicial authority is vested in the courts which are independent and subject to the laws of the Constitution, 1996. Courts are impartial and their decisions are final subject to the laws stipulated The constitutional court It is the highest court for Constitutional Matters It is presided by a Maximum of 11 Judges The Court guarantees the basic rights and freedoms of all persons  Its judgements are binding on all organs of government, including Parliament, President, Police Force, the Army, Public Service The supreme court of appeal It is the Highest Court of Appeal except in constitutional matters and may hear only appeals, issues connected with appeals A matter may be taken to the SCA when a litigant is dissatisfied with the decision of a High Court The Supreme Court is located in Bloemfontein and is presided by 5 judges The high court High Courts are primarily intended to hear more serious criminal or civil cases Each Province has a High Court situated in the province of the capital city Magistrates court Magistrates’ Courts are the usual entry courts for the majority of litigants approaching a court of law to settle a dispute We have a Regional and District Courts Regional courts are higher in rank, this means they hear more serious cases than those in district courts They may impose heavier sentences than district courts Special courts These are various other courts which are locates at varying levels in the court hierarchy They include: Small claims courts which settle minor matters including cases not exceeding the amount of R3000 The Electoral Court which deals with electoral issues of political parties concerning disputes of elections The Labour Court which deal with issues pertaining to labour relations The Land Claims Courts which deal with matters of land restitution in which communities seek compensation for the dispossessed rights in the land or government to court for avoiding constitutional obligations to set up land restitution Relationships among branches The doctrine of Separation of Powers recognises the functional independence of the Legislative, Executive and Judiciary  The concept evolved under the principle that liberty and the rights of the individuals were best preserved and protected if governmental powers were distributed among three branches of government. Chapter 9 institutions Chapter 9 institutions are entrusted to promote rights and to strengthen constitutional democracy. 1. The Public Protector 2. The South African Human Rights Commission 3. The Auditor General 4. The Commission for the Promotion and Protection of Rights of Cultural, Religions and Linguistic Communities 5. The Independent Electoral Commission of South Africa 6. The Commission for Gender Equality Chapter 5 Coordinating governmental actions : the role of cabinet and its clusters Into The importance of integration and coordination as critical requirements for effective service delivery has been gaining prominence across many countries around the world. Concepts such as joined-up government, collaborative government, cooperative governance and integrated public governance have been used to ensure governments operate across institutional boundaries to deliver services better. At the heart of all of these concepts is the recognition that the intricate societal problems that government deals with have multiple causes and therefore need a multi-faceted and coherent approach to solve Organising as a phenomenon In order to understand a phenomenon, the four traditional management functions: Planning, organising, leading and controlling Planning and decision-making are about determining the courses of action of an organisation. Planning means determining an organisation’s goals and deciding how best achieve them. Decision-making involves selecting a course of action from a set of alternatives. Once the plans are in plan, organising entails structuring human resource and other resources necessary to carry out the plan.  Leading concerns motivating and managing employees. Once the organising process is complete, it is at this point that management has to engage in leading. Leading can be described as the set of processes used to get members of the organisation to work together to further the interests of the organisation. The leadership function consists of four different activities namely: Motivating Leading Dealing with groups and group process Communication Controlling is about monitoring and evaluating activities. As the organisations moves towards its goals, management must monitor its progress, it must make sure that the organisation is performing in such a way that it arrives its destination within the set time. Public Service Act, contains the norms and standards for Ministers. See page 110 in prescribed textbook Hierarchy structures The basic elements of organising include: Work specialisation, Departmentalisation, Authority relationships, Span of control and Line and staff roles. Every organisation it must be decided how many subordinates a supervisor can manage, thus the number of subordinates who report to a particular manager. Advantages Close supervision Close control in the sub-ordinates work Fast communication between subordinates and supervisors Disadvantages: Supervisors tend to get too involved Many levels of management High costs due to many levels Excessive distance between the lowest and top level Span of control Competence of Supervisor and Subordinates  If a manager is competent and well trained, he or she can supervise more subordinates. If the subordinates are also competent and well trained, the usually require less supervision. The more competent the manager and subordinate, the wider the span of management can be. Physical dispersion of subordinates The more widely scattered the subordinates are in different locations, the narrower the span of control should be. If all subordinates are in one location, the span of control can be somewhat wider Extent of non-supervisory work in a manager’s job Some managers especially those at lower levels of an organisation spend most of their time supervising subordinates. Other managers spend a considerable amount of time doing repetitive work. Planning and engaging in other activities. The more nonsupervisory duties a manager has, the narrower his span of control should be. Degree of required interaction Some jobs require a great deal of interaction between a supervisor and a subordinates; other jobs require less. The more interaction that is required, the narrower the span should be Extent of standardised procedures If there is a fairly comprehensive set of standardised procedures, a relatively wide span of control is possible. Most difficulties can be handled by following a standard procedure. Similarity of tasks being supervised If most of the jobs being supervised are similar, a supervisor can handle a wider span of control. Frequency of new problems If new problems that require supervisory assistance arise frequently, a narrower span of control may be called for. Preferences of supervisors and subordinates If the supervisor prefers to monitor his subordinates closely ,and the subordinates themselves prefer close supervision, a narrower span of control may be appropriate. Departmentalisation: large vs small departments Departmentalisation refers to a process in which an organisation is structurally divided into combining jobs in departments according to a shared basis or shared characteristics.  Managers must determine what is most appropriate by examining the situations they face in terms of the jobs performed and the way they should be performed. The aim of departmentalisation is not an end in itself but is simply a method of arranging activities to facilitate the achievement of objectives Political expediency vs administrative efficiency The Cabinet consists of the President, as head of the Cabinet, a Deputy President and Ministers The President appoints the Deputy President and Ministers, assigns their powers and functions and may dismiss them The President must select the Deputy President from among the members of the NA, may select any number of ministers from among the members of the Assembly; and may select no more than two ministers from outside of the NA The President must appoint a member of the Cabinet to be the Leader of Government Business in the NA The Deputy President must assist the President in the execution of the functions of government Oversight functions of ministers The DP and the Ministers are responsible for the powers and functions of the executive assigned to them by the President Members of the Cabinet are accountable collectively and individually to Parliament for the exercise of their powers and performance of their functions Members of Cabinet should act in accordance to the Constitution and provide Parliament with full regular reports concerning matters under their control Ministers must perform their oversight role firstly, by rendering account individually and collectively to Parliament on the exercise of their powers Chapter 7 of PFMA outlines the financial responsibilities of Executive Authority over departments that they are responsible for: Executive authority of departments must perform their statutory function within the limits of the funds authorised for the relevant vote In performing their function, executive authority must consider monthly reports submitted to them Executive authority responsible for public entity under the control of the national executive (that is Cabinet) must exercise that executive ownership control powers Establishment of cabinet clusters Clusters were established to foster an integrated approach to governance that is aimed at improving governmental planning, decision-making and service delivery. The main objective is to ensure proper coordination of all government programmes at national and provincial levels. Cabinet established the cluster system in 1999 which consisted of Cabinet Committees performing selected functions The main functions of Clusters are: Ensure alignment of government wide priorities Facilitate and monitor the implementation of priority programmes Provide a consultative platform These committees are chaired by the President or Deputy President. They meet fortnightly and make recommendations to Cabinet and they are convened to do preparatory work for Cabinet Lekgotla Ministerial clusters The main functions of ministerial clusters are to: Ensure alignment of government wide priorities Facilitate and monitor the implementation of priority programmes Provide a consultative platform on cross-cutting priorities and matters being taken to Cabinet Ministerial clusters are chaired by Cluster Coordinating Ministers, Cluster Ministers and Director-General (DGs) constitute its members List of clusters 1. Infrastructure Development 2. Economic Sector and Employment 3. Governance and Administration 4. Human Development 5. Social Protection and Community Development 6. International Cooperation, Trade and Security 7. Justice, Crime Prevention and Security Director-general ( FOSAD ) clusters FOSAD is the forum of South African Directors-General. FOSAD operates like the Cabinet of DGs it acts as a consultative forum on issues that cut across all 7 clusters  For example, FOSAD is required by the Cabinet to coordinate the operationalisation of the Government Programme of Action and to troubleshoot if there are blockages in the delivery of services and to report to Cabinet. The reports that serve in Cabinet which emanate from the different clusters may be referred to FOSAD for further consideration and input. Role of FOSAD clusters Infrastructure Development Cluster Focuses on building an efficient, competitive and responsive economic infrastructure network. It is the mandate of the Presidential infrastructure Coordination Commission (PICC) to oversee the implementation of infrastructure projects that stimulate social and economic growth. The Cluster’s main priorities for Transport, Energy, Community Development, and Expanded Public Works Programme Projects Economic Sectors and Employment Cluster Main focus is on the South African economy and its improvement. Its Main Priorities are to: Ensure aligned and supportive macro-economic approaches Build a competitive and labour absorbing economy through industrial policy Promote equity and development Ensure priority skills for the economy Human Development Cluster Focuses on providing life-long programmes for quality education and a healthy life. It places emphasis on a growth path that includes African, women and youth as a reiteration of the country’s dream of building a winning nation. The Cluster’s Main Priorities are to: Promote a long and healthy life for all South Africans Improve quality of basic education Develop a skilled and capable workforce Social Protection and Community Development Cluster Focuses on rallying the social sector of government through its integrated programme interventions to protect South Africans from the vicious cycle of these triple challenges of poverty, inequality and unemployment. The Cluster’s Main Priorities are to: Deliver an integrated, inter-sectoral programme based on the ‘Fome Zero’ Brazil Model Raise awareness about Early Childhood Development programme to increase accessibility to such services Making delivery of housing a cornerstone of its programme  Social Protection and Community Development Cluster Focuses on rallying the social sector of government through its integrated programme interventions to protect South Africans from the vicious cycle of these triple challenges of poverty, inequality and unemployment. The Cluster’s Main Priorities are to: Deliver an integrated, inter-sectoral programme based on the ‘Fome Zero’ Brazil Model Raise awareness about Early Childhood Development programme to increase accessibility to such services Making delivery of housing a cornerstone of its programme International Cooperation, Trade and Security Cluster Aims to provide capacity building for the primary role players in the Cluster such as Department of State Security, Trade and Industry, Defence and Military Veterans and International Relations and Cooperation The Cluster’s main priorities are to: Consolidate the African Agenda Strengthen the North-South Cooperation Participate in the global system of governance Strengthen political and economic relations Governance and Administration Cluster Focuses on improving the quality of life of people in SA. The role is to promote and enforce good governance, to continue to assess and respond to capacity development needs and to drive initiatives to organise the state at a macro-level The Cluster’s Main Priorities are to: Promote good governance Build the capacity of the State Achieve macro-organisation of the State Build transversal systems Justice, Crime Prevention and Security Cluster Focuses on building a South African that is free of crime and corruption for all to enjoy freedom and rights The Cluster’s main priorities are to: Reduce overall level of serious crimes Strengthen partnerships within the Criminal Justice System Combat corruption Improve and manage perceptions of crime among the population Reduce levels of corruption, improve investor perception, trust and willingness to invest in South Africa Challenges of coordination The NDP recommends the following steps to improve coordination: Adopt a less hierarchical approach to coordination with routine issues being dealt with on a day-to-day basis between officials in departments Use the cluster system to focus on strategic on cross-cutting issues Where coordination breaks down, the Presidency should bring different parties together to mediate agreements Chapter 6 THE ROLE OF THE STATE IN ENSURING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Introduction Sustainable environmental management can only occur where active local level support and participation exist. Particularly in less developed countries, community participation is believed to be the most effective strategy because people depend directly on their local physical environment and thus have a genuine interest in protecting it. Traditional role of the State Max Weber defined the state: as a human community that successfully claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of the physical force within a given territory. The Weberian approach displays the state as an institution or set of institutions exercising supreme political authority within a set territory. Greenberg (1990:16): State is constituted by the civil and military bureaucracy; the government, or those having formal control over the state; the formal and informal rules of the game that comprises the structure, the form and the operation. Greenberg suggests four aspects to identify a state: 1. Its property rules, 2. its regime form, 3. the nature of its apparatus, 4. and its policies Traditional role of the state consists of 7 basic functions of government: 1.Providing economic infrastructure 2.Provision of various collective goods and services 3.The resolution and adjustment of group conflicts 4.The maintenance of competition 5.Protection of natural resources 6.Minimum access by individuals to the goods and services of the economy 7.Stabilisation of the economy  Fundamental tasks of government The World Bank outlines four fundamental tasks of every government. Every government should: 1.Establish a foundation of law 2.Maintain a non-distortionary policy environment, including macro-economic stability 3.Invest in basic social services and infrastructure 4.Protect the vulnerable and the environment The nature of a developmental state A developmental state is the type of state: rationally planned in a manner that makes it possible and necessary for government to influence the direction pace of economic and social development rather than leaving it to the dictates of the market. Such a state establishes as its principles of legitimacy its ability to promote sustained development Understanding by development the steady high rates of economic growth and structural change in the productive system both domestically and in its relationship to international economy In SA, a developmental state needs to be capable of planning and managing investment in sectors normally neglected by private investors but essential for a higher skills, quality-based export trajectory. In a developmental state, political leaders and bureaucrats must be capable of resisting sectional pressure. SA’s prospects as a developmental state rest on overcoming its historic backwardness in terms of education and skills, and its ability to offer a way ahead to many of the people who are now fairly desperate and whose circumstances drag everyone down directly or indirectly. The changing the roles of the state Government: is a body of persons and institutions that make and apply all enforceable decisions in a society Governance: is the result of the interaction of a multiplicity of influencing actors, namely businesses, communities and individuals Pierre & Peters (2000) state that society also has other roles to play in the process of governance because society can be a major implementer, just as government is itself. Thus, implementation through social groups enables governments to utilise the expertise of those groups to make informed decisions. Sustainable development Sustainable development, is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The central goal is intergenerational equality, which implies fairness to coming generations. Sustainable Development (Cicin-Sain 1993), involves three major emphases: 1.Economic development 2.Environmental appropriate development 3.Equitable development Challenges facing Africa The conditions in which public services can grow and become more service- oriented are not in place to the same extent that they are elsewhere where public sector reforms have been attempted with a view of improving efficiency, effectiveness and service delivery. Abedian (2012) presents the following main constraints and challenges impeding Africa’s development: 1.Political mindsets remain colonial, fragmented and slow 2.Institutional coordination mechanisms are ineffective 3.Legislative and policy coordination and alignment are lacking 4. Capital markets are under-developed 5.Infrastructure development is slow and sluggish 6.Old and new colonial forces are at play and obstructive 7.Corruption is a real anti-developmental force at play 8. Regional or continental social activism is lacking Protocols for sustainable development Earth Summits and Agenda 21 Agenda 2: is a comprehensive plan of action to be taken globally, nationally and locally by organisations of the UN system, governments and major groups in every area in which human impacts on the environment Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were the expression of the strong commitment to universal development and poverty eradication made by the international community at the UN Declaration in September 2000 NEPAD is a radically new intervention spearheaded by African leaders to address critical challenges facing the Continent: Poverty, Development and Africa’s marginalisation internationally. NEPAD themes are: 1.Agriculture and food security 2.Climate change and national resource management  3.Regional integration and infrastructure 4.Human development 5.Economic and corporate governance 6.Gender, capacity development and ICT Structural adjustment programmes Structural Adjustment Programmes or Policies (SAPS), are policy responses to external shocks, carried out with the objective of regaining the pre-shock growth path of the national economy. Like external shocks, internal shocks affect economic growth and the balance of payments requiring the application of structural adjustment policies SAP began as a disjoined combination of quick-fix solutions to Africa’s economic crisis and the stabilisation programme of the IMF, which has been applied to industrialised market economies in distress as a result of balance of payment difficulties New growth path in SA NGP is a policy document central to government’s vision for economic development and job creation. It constitutes a series of interventions aimed at growing the economy and halting the decline in the production sectors and increasing levels of employment. In terms of implementation of the NGP, the main drivers outside of public sector are business, organised labour and other civil society actors. This implies that key to the implementation is the development of a constructive and collaborative relations between the State and Businesses. Local economic development Local Economic Development is a participatory process that encourages partnership arrangements between the main private and public stakeholders of a defined territory. LED involves identifying and using primary local resources, ideas and skills to stimulate economic growth and development. The three main categories of LED: 1.Community economic development 2.Enterprise development 3.Overall planning and management of economic and physical environment of that area Integrated development plan IDP The integrated development plan is a tool for the development of municipality with the intention of enabling it to align scarce resources behind agreed policy objectives and programmes While the idea behind a IDP is to build up a comprehensive integrated plan, municipalities cannot plan everything in detail in the first year. Rather the IDPs should empower municipalities to prioritise and strategically focus on their activities and resources The development of the IDPs should be managed within municipalities and provide a way of enhancing: the strategic planning capacity of the administration building organisational partnerships between management and labour enhancing synergy between line functions party political interference and sustainable development Middle class professionals who run key public institutions tend to be understandably preoccupied with their own economic survival which often prevents their institutions from helping civil society to checkmate state hegemony. Hegemony means the leadership or domination, it refers to the capacity of bourgeois ideas to displace rival views and become the common sense of the age. As a result, political interference has hampered the integrity of the Public Sector and it has paralysed the proper functioning of state institutions leading to state failure. Chapter 7 POLICY MANAGEMENT FOR EFFECTIVE AND EFFICIENT PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION Introduction Policy, as a series of separate or interrelated ideas, proposals, actions, formal programmes with experienced outcomes A policy can be a central governmental activity or a planned programme of a public entity serving a specific section of society Public policy refers to all the formal and publicly known decisions of governments that come about through predetermined channels in a particular administration Policy implementation, is the action or a combination of actions taken to carry out agreed policy objective or programme Policy and its orgin Policymaking was conceptualised as a logical cycle: 1.Where the main steps included a social problem to be achieved 2.A plan was developed 3.Resources such as human and financial were allocated 4. Implementation occurred through identified actors 5. The outcomes were monitored and evaluated. Governments over the world grapple with policy, policy must be dynamic, multidimensional, integrated and seamless must not in themselves be idealised Policy management in developing countries Developing countries face challenges including: 1.Urgency of developmental outcomes 2.High expectations from citizens for material change to their daily lives 3.Obligation by government to meet goals and targets and 4.The pressing demand to improve the economy Another response by developing countries is, to adopt policy design approaches that are unique to their context and needs Context that developing countries find themselves in: 1.Developing countries are countries in transition meaning they are in the process of resolving and forging changed or new political, economic and social processes. 2.Developing countries have limited public resources to back their developmental goals materially 3.Developing countries have weak capabilities in respect to human capacity, technical expertise and support for large scale developmental programmes 4.External and international support for developmental initiatives may not be readily available if there is a lack of confidence in a particular developing country 5.Developing countries must have legitimacy among civil society and citizens and be able to demonstrate transparency, quality and effectiveness of public policy Decision making in policy making The models summarised below explain and conceptualise different decision- making processes. The models include: 1.Rational 2.Incremental 3.Mixed Scanning 4.Garbage Can  5.Decision Accretion 1. Rational Model of decision-making: was conceptualised for the marketplace where the emphasis was on (1) minimising costs and (2) maximising benefits. Decision-making in the public policy arena would mean maximising the expected outcomes of the choices made 2. Incremental Model emphasises decision-making as a political process where bargaining and compromising occur. The model makes tactical shift where emphasis is on feasibility of outcomes rather than what is desirable and optimal 3. Mixed Scanning Model synthesis the rational and incremental model. This model consists of two stages of decision-making which are (1) assessing a problem and (2) analysing the possible solutions thereby taking on a more rational quality 4. Garbage-Can Model recognises that sometimes there is a lack of rationality in the decision-making process. The model rejects the rational and incremental model on the basis that they are presumptive about reality. The model postulates that decision-making is highly ambiguous and unpredictable 5. Decision-Accretion Model takes its name from the development process involved in the growth of a pearl in an oyster. The model suggests that decision-making is not an instantaneous, exact process. Rather it occurs in multiple layers over a lengthy period of time through the actions of several decision-makers Defining the public sector Governments across the world are differentiated by: ideology political systems macroeconomic approaches and by their relationship towards civil society. These arrangements have a function of historic, economic, social and cultural precepts where there is sharing of responsibilities and benefits. Given that governments are different, and that they may be arranged in various ways, they so share common functions, responsibilities and duties in terms of their statehood Defining public administration The public sector also known as government sector or Public service, is allocated the role of producing, distributing and regulating public goods and services for both itself, that is government and its citizens. The public sector is identifiable as national spheres, public sector institutions, entities and public companies Public administration consists of the complex public sector structure that spreads itself across the society like a matrix, complete with critical centres and discretionary correlates. Public administration involves the institutional arrangements that a government forges as it establishes a strong and effective state. Defining public management Since governments are consistently comparing themselves to others, as well as setting new intentions in the fact of political, economic and social development, the Public Sector is influenced directly and indirectly. One consequence is to characterise public sector personnel as public management that is adaptive, flexible and innovative in their decision-making. Decisions are derived from an analysis of the situation or context. Public management needs to function in an environment of diversity, entrepreneurship and complexity Policy management as a toll for efficient public administration Public policy has two distinctive components that have relevance for public governance namely: Policy Formulation which has to come first followed by Policy Implementation. The former involves developing and synthesising of alternative solutions for public policy problems and is by and large a conceptual and theoretical exercise. The implementation of policy involves executing a policy plan or action that has as its main objectives, the remedying of a particular problem that has been identified Policy formulation and implementation Policies signify theories and ultimately programmes when, through authoritative action, the initial conditions are created. Implementation is the capacity to develop subsequent links in the casual chain thereby ensuring that the desired results are achieved. The implementation of public policy is directed at people and multiple groupings that have different and often conflicting agendas and interests.  A major deficiency of public policy formulation in SA is the absence of a theoretical dimension and lack of expertise, which quite often tends to create some doubt on the outcomes intended by the policy. Unsystematic, informal, opportunistic and random decisions by key policy role players and actors at different policymaking spaces and levels have quite often characterised policymaking in the Public Sector Problems beyond finance and affordability are encountered. Some of these problems include: Before housing construction can take place, land has to be proclaimed as housing land within a township, creating a major barrier to private companies that wish to proceed with construction Sometimes construction is delayed due to delays in infrastructure provision which must be in place prior to any construction activity Strengthening public policy management Given the issues related to public policy implementation, four critical aspects of the process must be addressed: The importance of context: There is a difference in how policy planners and intended beneficiaries view the context within which a policy will be implemented. Policy planners do not have insights into the history, contesting claims, attachment of meaning within which the beneficiary group. This leads to a mismatch between how people understand their everyday challenges and the technical interventions put in place to ameliorate them The role of stakeholders: The consultation process between policy planners and intended beneficiaries is not of the same depth and breath as people’s participation. The former process may satisfy compliance processes but does not involve beneficiaries fully in policy implementation. In the latter, beneficiaries may act as monitors and evaluators of the policy implementation process thereby realising shared goals. Ownership of the implementation process Ideally, intended beneficiaries should be persuaded to accept that they co-own the policy implementation process whereby they are active actors. This approach ensures that when policy changes are unavoidable during policy implementation, consensus can be reached easily and swiftly Flexible implementation: A policy can never be correct for all situations or circumstances. Consequently, parts of the policy or the entire policy need to be changed The policymaking process and role players Sometimes it is impossible to identify where policy-making begins and where it ends. Sometimes a policy may have unintended consequences because of uncertainty or impacts on unknown phenomena. However, these concerns should not detract from the purpose, usefulness and proven processes of policy. Three approaches are: The Policy Cycle Model, the Policy Systems Model and the Stage Model 1. The policy cycle model Howlett explains that one of the ways of simplifying policymaking is: to think of it as a process that is a set of interrelated stages through which policy issues flow in a sequential fashion form. The policy cycle model implies a beginning and an end with possibilities for review in the cycle. The cycle appears to consist of a logical flow of processes. See page 169, figure 7.1 2. The policy systems model The policy systems model is a valuable took to identifying subsystems and processes of larger systems. The approach is to be able to gauge the success of the ability of the political system to convert public demands into public policy, the effectiveness of feedback processes and the extent to which feedback information is incorporated in new policies. Two critical factors are explained: Upper framework and lower framework See page 170, Figure 7.2 3. The stage model The stage model is characterised by information generation in two-way process: which interconnects with 11 stages of policy making processes which then further connects with role players and finally with the policy environment. The stage model may be more comprehensive in outlook, but this does not mean that it is problem free. Its main problem is reification. Reification refers to the possibility of misunderstanding an abstract idea as actually occurring in practice.  The policy maker does not have absolute control over the policy process, the policy actors or the policy environment The importance of management in the policy process Policymakers, that is governments, legislators and those who implement policies through programmes are therefore not in complete control of the process and outcomes. Outcomes can range from success to outright failure. It could also mean that policy makers understood the problem to be addressed but could not adequately address it due to unforeseen factors. Chapter 8 MONITORING AND EVALUATING THE QUALITY OF POLICY IMPLEMENTATION Defining Monitoring and Evaluation Monitoring. is a never-ending oversight process that focuses on tracking ongoing activities and is not a once-off activity. Monitoring requires clarity on delivery expectations and helps to ensure that what is expected is achieved. Evaluation, is an assessment activity to compare the intended results against the actual activities, that is it consists of processes that analyse what has been and what was expected. Evaluation can be done during implementation, or it can be done at the end of the activity Rationale for Monitoring and Evaluation Democratic South Africa’s less-than-desired pace of delivery has led to a large number violent demonstrations as communities have become impatient with the pace and quality of implementation Even the best policies will fail if not properly monitored and evaluated so these functions should be planned for prior to policy implementation with appropriate resources allocated in advance Where the State is more interventionist in nature and so participates in a range of activities beyond the traditional state roles of providing safety and security. Legislative underpinning The DPME is the custodian of Government’s Monitoring and Evaluation System which aims to provide a M&E integrated framework throughout government structures and to deliver relevant information to its users  The system is intended to facilitate critical reflection and managerial action in response to the relationship between the deployment of inputs and generation of outputs, their associated outcomes and impacts. Institutionalising monitoring and evaluation The systems theory provides a theoretical base for analytical and institutionaling the M&E system. The systems theory recognises the multifaceted nature of governance given the presence of subsystems, interrelatedness and interdependence. Functionalist theory suggests that in the study of society, we should look at how the various parts or institutions combine to give society continuity over time. This theoretical approach can be used to explain why partnerships emerge, persist, and how these efforts fulfil organisational and societal needs. See figure 8.1 and Figure 8.2 Forms of monitoring Monitoring is the implementation activity as it is all about ensuring that activities and programmes are on track towards achieving the desired goals. In order to do this effectively, it is important to develop an implementation plan which serves as a monitoring tool and ensures deliverables are in accordance with set standards. 1.Input -related monitoring This form of monitoring is primarily efficiency orientated as it is concerned with the efficient utilisation of resources to ensure optimal levels of production. Attention is paid to: 1.Human resources or staff assigned to the project 2.Timelines for policy deliverables 3.Information sharing 4.Input implementation variance across sites that is do the elements of employees, time and cost vary from site to site 5.Financial cost of various activities 2. Output related monitoring This form of monitoring is effectiveness orientated as it focuses on the end results and the extent to which the goals have been effectively met. The focus is to ensure the following elements are monitored: 1.Quantity (of deliverables for examples houses built) 2.Quality (of deliverable) and adequacy levels of services being rendered 3.Spread or services availability across geographical sites  4.Output appropriateness of needs of envisaged groups 5.Output relationship with outcome and impact 3. Process related monitoring Process related monitoring focuses on the rollout process and the appropriateness of a process which may include monitoring of: 1.The stakeholder identification process 2.The extent to which key stakeholders identified have been engaged 3.The extent to which the environment has facilitated or hindered implementation 4.The development of various support systems to support the policy 5. The relationship between inputs and outputs 6.Client care and aftercare services 7.Information flow processes and decision-making processes 8.Processes to ensure that processes are value-compliant in terms of participation, ethics, democratisation and transparency 4. Integrated comprehensive monitoring This is a comprehensive monitoring of input, process, and output in order to mediate some limitation specific to one element and to take advantage of all the benefits that accrue to all the elements. It is indeed a combination of all the monitoring forms. Policy evaluations Evaluation is an assessment activity that can be conducted at pre- implementation, at actual implementation and post-implementation begins. It is time-bound and could be monthly, quarterly or annual. It is used to generate information on a policy. This in turn, is used for decision-making, effectiveness and efficiency enhancement in policy and other government processes. 1.Pre-implematations evaluation Pre-implementation evaluation is used at the early stage of implementation when a policy option has been selected but not much implementation has taken place. The essence of this is to investigate more specifically and forecast possible effects and consequences of the policy direction in question. The value of this exercise is that it aids in the understanding of the selected policy decision and may lead to modification of policy direction before its implementation thereby avoiding administrative ineffeciencies. 2.implematation evaluations This is a process of evaluation while in implementation phase. The essence of this is to compare the current data against the baseline data and to determine if the policy objectives are being progressively attained which also making sure that public resources are effectively and efficiently utilised Strategies for improving monitoring and evaluations 1. Adapting a quality-improvement strategy Quality management is at the centre of monitoring and evaluation. It should therefore be viewed as an integral aspect of the monitoring process This means that there will be quality checks throughout the process including the development and implementation of a monitoring plan in such a way that it contributes to effective service delivery. Tools that may be used to support quality attainment include 1.reports, 2.peer-reviews and 3.action plans. 2.inclusive and participatory monitoring and evaluation approaches The quality of M&E can be improved if it is more participatory in nature. This requires recipients and stakeholders of policy, programme and project implementations to be aware of the roles they can play as well as their responsibilities and obligations in terms of making sure that policies are monitored and appropriate feedback provided for consideration in decision- making. 3.developing a culture of learning and sharing insights M&E can thrive where there is a culture that supports learning and sharing of information. In that way, institutions strive to improve their policy performance. Boguslaw (2002) argues that what makes organisations work, are the relations and the culture that underlie partnerships. What this suggest is that leadership and management have to invest in developing the right culture over time to ensure that the culture of learning is embraced and that M&E is positioned to support service delivery 4.Evidence based monitoring and evaluation approach Evidence plays an important role as implementers can check if the programme is on track based on the evidence that is generated from routine and non-routine activities  They can also make a pronouncement about the extent to which the objectives of the policy have been achieved as well as what the impact has been. The utilisation of data commences with the availability of a baseline which could include evidence from, for example: 1.payrolls, 2.materials and 3.invoices. 5.use of benchmarking strategies Benchmarking is useful as it allows one to get a perspective on the policy implementation by comparing efforts to similar activities elsewhere. A good benchmark sets an above-average target of excellence to measure against, and to improve upon, in practice. Most institutions benchmark against leaders in that sector. Benchmarking denotes best practice or a good management practice that constantly endeavours to be comparable to the best. 6.peermonitoring and evaluation strategies Peer M&E strategies has to do with monitoring of a peer by another peer, in the governmental context, it may be monitoring of a sphere of government another. Effective sphere M&E thus reduces the risk of policy failure at service delivery points. Without adequate M&E, the implementation of policies may be fraught with challenges which may not be detected and may lead to a myriad of problems for citizens. Selection of key tools for effective monitoring and evaluation 1.Developing appropriate plans for M&E Monitoring plans like most other plans may be classified by their frames. Short term monitoring plans usually cover a period of less than one year, medium term plans range from one to five years and plans that exceed five years are considered to be long term. Planning for M&E is important because: 1.Promotes cooperation between various departments and the public 2.Facilitates control 3.Creates a higher level of predictability as it gives direction to management 2.the development of appropriate terms of reference This should be developed at the planning stage of the evaluation  It is a useful tool for all the evaluators as it spells out key aspects of delivery and keeps the evaluation focused on the critical elements thereby ensuring that the report is relevant and of a high quality. It also serves as a contract detailing the work arrangements and parameters for the activity. 3.development of an appropriate M&E framework An appropriate M&E framework is a critical element for successful monitoring and evaluation and has to be well developed. It can also be viewed as a key aspect of the monitoring plan as it shows aspects of the policy or programme, their inter-relationships, and the sequencing of elements required towards achieving the goal. The various types of frameworks include: 1.The conceptual or research framework 2.The results or strategic framework 3.The logic framework Practical steps to ensure quality monitoring and evaluation Step 1: Make a decision to evaluate and follow through Step 2: Develop an overarching philosophy for the evaluation task Step 3: Clarify what exactly is being evaluated Step 4: Clarify the strategy and design for executing the evaluation Step 5: Plan in detail for the evaluation activity Step 6: Implement plan for evaluation activities Step 7: Prepare evaluation reports with clear policy recommendations Chapter 11 ORGANISATIONAL DEVELOPMENT TO SUPPORT THE DEVELOPMENTAL STATE Organising as an administrative function The purpose of organising is to create structure into which humans beings fit so that they know what is expected of them to achieve stated organisational goals. Leftwich crafted a model for developmental state based on six components: 1.A determined developmental elite 2.Relative autonomy of the developmental state from class interests 3.A powerful, competent and insulated economic bureaucracy 4.A week and subordinated civil society 5.The effective management of non-state economic interests 6.Repression of civil rights, legitimacy and performance Gulick and Urwick emphasise the following principles of organising: That institutions be structured according to four criteria’s: Objectives which need to be reached Process or function to be performed The needs of the clients to be served The geographical area where the service is required Unity of command: Authority and responsibility Span of control Delegation The utilisation of line and staff personnel Organisational theory A theory, to be universal, should be able to describe a phenomenon or activity; to explain a particular activity has taken place or has been unsuccessful; and predict what could happen if a particular condition applies in regard to the phenomenon under scrutiny. Thornhill and Van Dijk, identified 10 different administrative theories that are divided into classical and contemporary theories. Classical schools and approaches are: 1.Scientific management promoting the one, best way of performing a task as promoted 2.The bureaucratic approach as promoted by Max Webber proposing adherence to legal authority, strong control, hierarchy and unity of command 3. The human relations movement identifying the need to consider the important contribution that humans make in organisations 4.Quantitative management theory suggest development of mathematical models to aid managers in making decisions. The contemporary approach Contemporary models and approaches are more applicable to the challenges relating to organising faced by public sector managers today. A system is a set of interrelated and interdependent parts arranged in a manner that produces a unified unit. Societies are systems, and so too are automobiles, plants, and human bodies. Robbins and DeCenzo state that the systems approach views an organisation as a set of interrelated and interdependent components The systems approach has four primary components:  1.Inputs: emanating from the environment from a public administration point of views, include the needs and demands of the community within the context of available resources and prevailing government policy 2.Processes: that transform the above inputs through the internal systems and activities, namely governmental and administrative processes aimed at converting the inputs from the external environment 3.Outputs: desired outcomes resulting from the transformation of the inputs by the institution, which in the public administration context refers to the public goods and services rendered to society 4.Feedback: both an external and internal control mechanism to determine whether the process of transforming inputs has reached the desired outcomes as outputs which affects the future inputs. Contingency approach Contingency approach to organisations which recognises that all organisations are different and that they operate within circumstances and thus are managed in a manner that is adapted to best suit the needs and specific circumstances of that organisation. Due to the diversity of organisations and their differing environments, the contingency approach requires that the particular situational variables of institutions including their sizes, nature of functions and location Environmental perspectives Institutions appear to be mechanic and structured when they are operating in a stable and predictable environment. Environmental variables should be taken into account by the public manager to ensure that timely adaptations can be made to the structure. If this is not the case, executive institutions may be incapable of rendering qualitative services to society Organisational structure An efficient organisational structure is required to ensure that each activity in the institution is directed towards achieving organisational goals. 1.Line system The line system is the hierarchical system because it is where the direct chain of command is ensured. It is also known as the stepped organisational system as they are clear levels of authority. The line system implies a single top leader who takes all decisions and is the only one to issue instructions aimed at achieving identified goals. He or she sends instructions in a direct line to the subordinates. Features of a line system are that:  Only one supervisor gives orders to subordinates Orders to subordinates are given by their immediate head There is a limit to the number of officials who are under the direct supervision of a single supervisor The authority and responsibility of each official is clearly defined 2. Line and staff system The combination of line and staff systems retains the advantages of the line system by utilising a clear, hierarchic structure. It provides that the chief officials no longer have to be skilled in all the operational functions. Such assistants have no authority for issuing orders in the line structure. They do specialised work and act in advisory capacities. They provide information to the CEO enabling them to perform the function more effectively and efficiently The CEO can lean on and rely on expertise from these staff units. The CEO do not have to accept the advice of the staff units. The staff unit does not have to take responsibility for the advice they give 3.Matrix A matrix is a type of an organisational structure that groups employees and resources by function and service. It results in a complex network of superior- subordinate reporting relationships. The matrix structure combines employees and managers from various departments to work together to achieve a common goal. The structure is very flexible and can respond rapidly to the need for change. Each employee has at least two supervisors and the possibility exists that both supervisors cannot be satisfied simultaneously Functions of organising Organising seeks answers to questions such as: 1.Who decides what the organisational issues are? 2.Who does what work? 3.What action should be taken? 4.What should the relationship be between people? Division of labour It is the responsibility of public officials to implement the executive policy made by the politicians in the Legislature and Executive. The implementation of policy can only take place if work is divided among the officials, and division of work always leads to the creation of work units.  Work units are seen in a macro view as the executive institutions comprising departmental and non-departmental institutions. In a micro view, that is within each executive institution, work units are seen as the divisions, sections and posts created. Delegation Delegation means to hand down or to give to; it is the process by which the making and executing of decisions is transferred as far down the organisational structure as possible. Those who make the decisions are also answerable for the results of their decisions. To delegate is to achieve specified results by empowering and motivating others to accomplish some of the results for which the delegator is ultimately accountable for. Coordination Coordination is the achievement of consistent and harmonious behaviour by people who work together to realise a common objective. Coordination plays a major role in the process of organising and is one of the primary requirements for an efficient organisation. The needs of modern society cannot be met by one science, and has necessitated specialisation by means of the division of labour. As a result, many different teams and units were established in the government’s field of operations, each responsible for a specific aspect of the government’s functions. Each of these different teams and units perform a particular task. Span of control Span of control refers to the number of people who report to one manager in a hierarchy. The more employees under the control of one manager, the wider the span of control. Fewer employees means a narrower span of control. The principle of span of control proposes that there is a certain size at which span of control reaches its maximum capacity to be effective and that increasing the size beyond this capacity adds no value and may even be harmful. The organisation Change is an integral part of any organisation.  It is important that organisations function within a changing environment and that organisations continuously need to adapt and develop to become more effective and efficient. Organisational behaviour Organisational behaviour relates to the behaviour of individuals and groups within and among institutions. The primary focus is on the informal and formal actions of individuals and groups in institutions. Organisational change Change simply refers to movement away from the current situation, thereby changing the status quo. Institutions that are consistently efficient in delivering services have the ability to adapt to changing circumstances. Changes may either be sudden, or they may be planned. 1.The aim of panned change is to allow institutions to remain viable. 2. Current products and services have a limited shelf life and can become obsolete. Organisational development In relation to individuals, development refers to their progress following training. Individuals cannot develop unless they feel the need to, and individual development does not happen all at once as it is an ongoing process. Only when individuals are self-motivated to develop continually can they adapt to changing circumstances. Development is therefore the continuation of education and training in order to maintain a satisfactory level of experience and skills a well as a desired attitude to advance higher levels in the hierarchy of management Measuring organisational effectiveness and efficiency Organisational effectiveness refers to the degree to which organisational goals are realised. Effectiveness measures the extent to which multiple goals are achieved. Efficiency is more limited in nature as it refers to the extent to which the stated objectives of an organisation have been achieved. Efficiency focuses on the internal workings of the organisation. Organisational efficiency is the amount of resources used to achieve and produce an output. Thus the ratio of inputs to outputs. Daft identifies four approaches to measure effectiveness: 1.Goal approach identifies and assesses the organisation’s outputs goals in terms of how well those goals were attained. 2.Resource based approach makes the assumption that an organisation will be effective if it is able to obtain and manage strategically valuable resources. 3.Internal process approach measures internal organisational health and efficiency. It is associated with smooth internal processes, happy and satisfied employees, and the departmental activities that can be integral. 4.The strategic constituents approach is related to the stakeholders approach and the level of satisfaction of key stakeholders.