Mechanical and Electrical Systems in Architecture, Engineering, and Construction PDF

FIFTH EDITION MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS in Architecture, Engineering, and Construction JOSEPH B. WUJEK Advanced Building Consultants, LLC FRANK R. DAGOSTINO Prentice Hall...

FIFTH EDITION MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS in Architecture, Engineering, and Construction JOSEPH B. WUJEK Advanced Building Consultants, LLC FRANK R. DAGOSTINO Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, New Jersey Columbus, Ohio Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Wujek, Joseph B. Mechanical and electrical systems in architecture, engineering, and construction / Joseph B. Wujek, Frank Dagostino. — 5th ed. p. cm. Rev. ed. of Mechanical and electrical systems in construction and architecture / Frank Dagostino, Joseph B. Wujek. ISBN-13: 978-0-13-500004-5 ISBN-10: 0-13-500004-1 1. Buildings––Mechanical equipment. 2. Buildings—Electric equipment. I. Dagostino, Frank R. II. Dagostino, Frank R. Mechanical and electrical systems in construction and architecture. III. Title. TH6010.D33 2010 696––dc22 2008053804 Vice President and Executive Publisher: Vernon R. Anthony Acquisitions Editor: Eric Krassow Editorial Assistant: Sonya Kottcamp Production Manager: Wanda Rockwell Creative Director: Jayne Conte Cover Designer: Bruce Kenselaar Cover photo: Corbis Director of Marketing: David Gesell Marketing Manager: Derril Trakalo Senior Marketing Coordinator: Alicia Wozniak This book was set in Times by Aptara®, Inc. and was printed and bound by R.R. Donnelley. The cover was printed by DPC. Copyright © 2010, 2005, 1995, 1991, 1978 by Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458. Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. For information regarding permission(s), write to: Rights and Permissions Department. Pearson Prentice Hall™ is a trademark of Pearson Education, Inc. Pearson® is a registered trademark of Pearson plc Prentice Hall® is a registered trademark of Pearson Education, Inc. Pearson Education Ltd., London Pearson Education Australia Pty. Limited Pearson Education Singapore Pte. Ltd. Pearson Education North Asia Ltd., Hong Kong Pearson Education Canada, Inc. Pearson Educación de Mexico, S.A. de C.V. Pearson Education—Japan Pearson Education Malaysia Pte. Ltd. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ISBN-13: 978-0-13-500004-5 ISBN-10: 0-13-500004-1  A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S This book is dedicated to my mother and father, Sophie and Purdue University; Bruce W. Smith, Auburn University; and Joseph Wujek, Sr., and my family. The constant encouragement Russell Walters, University of Florida. I received from my parents causes me to believe that anything The original author, the late Frank Dagostino, should be is possible through hard work. I thankfully acknowledge my recognized because his insight and effort over many decades best friend and wife, Shauna, for her patience, assistance, and served as a foundation for a fine book. guidance. Mostly, I thank her for her love and companionship. I I am thankful to Sonya Kottcamp, Editorial Assistant, also recognize my sons, Blaze and Bryce. They gave Dad the Eric Krassow, Acquisitions Editor, and Wanda Rockwell, Pro- free time needed for the completion of a project of this size. duction Manager with Pearson Prentice Hall, who all worked These commitments were all necessary in making this undertak- patiently and prudently to keep me on schedule (as best they ing possible. could). Last, Evelyn Perricone, my copy editor, and Nitin I am grateful to those students, faculty, professionals, col- Agarwal, my Project Manager, should also be recognized for leagues, and others who have contributed to this work, either their hard work in turning my roughly written manuscript into through direct contributions or through feedback. The many its present professional form. professional associations and governmental entities that sup- plied technical information in this book must be acknowledged. Their cooperation and support are greatly appreciated. I thank Joseph Wujek the following reviewers for their input: Daphene Cyr Koch, iii  P R E F A C E Mechanical and Electrical Systems in Architecture, Engineering, electrical technologies that are being incorporated into the and Construction, fifth edition, is for those who must have a whole system that makes up an advanced building. broad understanding of building mechanical and electrical Elementary engineering concepts and design principles materials, equipment, and systems to successfully envision, are introduced in a straightforward manner. Over 150 new pho- design, draw, construct, evaluate or operate a building or build- tographs and 40 new figures have been added to help improve ing project. It is written specifically for those interested in build- the reader’s understanding of these subjects. Topics are pre- ing heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC), plumbing sented on an intermediate mathematics level, requiring that the and piping (water supply and sanitary drainage), storm drainage, student have a working knowledge of college algebra. Home- illumination, electrical power distribution, building telecommu- work exercises and design problems are written with the intent nications, acoustics and acoustical control, vertical/horizontal of introducing basic principles with, in most instances, real- transportation and conveying, fire protection and suppression, world connections. and building renewable energy and energy conservation systems. A text like this is needed because those in the architecture, This book is intended to provide a broad-scope introduc- engineering, and construction (AEC) industry must have an un- tion to building mechanical and electrical materials, equip- derstanding of whole building design. Building mechanical and ment, systems, design concepts, and engineering principles. It electrical technologies are integral elements that make up the presents material that can provide the future architect, archi- whole building system—that is, they are really elemental sys- tectural engineer, and architectural engineering technician tems within a single system, each of which must function and with a basic working-level knowledge of principles and practices. interact effectively with the other systems. Successful integra- The audience of this text will likely be undergraduate college tion during design and construction depends on knowledge and and university students in architecture, architectural technology, teamwork of all involved—the architectural designer, the me- architectural engineering technology, construction engineering chanical and electrical engineer, the technician, the draftsperson, technology, construction management, and elementary archi- the construction manager, the general contractor, the subcon- tectural engineering. tractors, workers in the trades, and facilities managers and The fifth edition of this book has been fully reformatted personnel. All involved should be familiar with basic design and updated from the previous edition. This transformation is strategies, construction procedures, system characteristics, space intended to better accommodate its use in introductory college requirements, and the time frame and progression at which such and university courses. Nine chapters have been rewritten to work must be done on the job. Simply put, everyone involved in reflect changes in the industry and the other chapters have been building design, construction, operation, maintenance, and de- updated. Chapters on occupant transportation/conveying sys- construction should be familiar with building mechanical and tems and emerging sustainability technologies have been added electrical systems. to expand coverage. The new chapter, “Emerging Sustainable Technologies,” addresses emerging building mechanical and Joseph Wujek iv  P R O L O G U E A general introduction to common building industry practices Mechanical and electrical systems in the building con- and trends ensures that the reader has a basic understanding of struction industry fit within classifications known as mechanical/ the industry. Such an understanding is beneficial because it val- electrical/plumbing (MEP) or electrical/mechanical/plumbing/fire idates the need for all building industry professionals to under- protection (E/M/P/FP) systems. MEP systems influence occu- stand the subjects presented in this text: building mechanical pant health, comfort, and productivity, and greatly affect costs, and electrical materials, components, equipment, and systems. including the first cost and operating (energy use and mainte- This introduction is particularly helpful to the reader who has nance) costs. MEP systems are the heart and nervous system of little or no experience in the building industry. a building. THE BUILDING INDUSTRY ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF BUILDINGS The global architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) The earth’s natural resources are limited and world population industry accounts for about 10% of the world’s gross domestic continues to increase. With the passing of each day, there is a product, 7% of all employment, and approximately half of all greater and greater reliance on natural resources and more resource use, including about 40% of all energy consumption. degradation of the environment. Buildings account for a large In the United States, the AEC industry is over a trillion dollar amount of resource (energy and water) consumption, land use, business ($1069 trillion for construction alone in 2005). In 2005, atmospheric greenhouse gas emissions, and generation of envi- the U.S. construction industry directly employed 7.3 million ronmental waste and pollution. people and another 1.3 million people in architecture and engi- With about 4.5% of the world’s population, the United neering. The AEC industry is big business in the United States States consumes nearly 23% of the total global energy. This and worldwide. means that the U.S. consumes energy over 5 times the world In the AEC industry, architects and their support staff de- per capita average and over 100 times more per capita than sign buildings, while engineers and their support staff design many undeveloped countries. The United States is not alone in the engineering systems within these buildings. Constructors, its energy-use intensity. Countries like Qatar, Kuwait, Norway, serving as contractors, and their employees and subcontractors and Canada use energy at a higher per capita rate. From a build buildings. Construction managers supervise the construc- global perspective, more developed, industrialized countries tion project. Facilities managers and staff operate and maintain (e.g., countries in Europe, North America, Australia, New buildings. All players must effectively work together as the Zealand, and Japan) make up only about 17% of the world’s building design, construction, and operation team. population but use about three-quarters of the world’s energy resources. THE BUILDING MECHANICAL About 40% of the energy consumed in the United States AND ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS is used in buildings. Thus, U.S. buildings use between 9 and 10% of the energy consumed worldwide. Of the energy con- Well-designed, modern buildings are made up of many compo- sumed in U.S. buildings, about 40% is for space (comfort) heat- nents and pieces of equipment that are integrated so that, when ing, cooling, and ventilation; about 18% is used for lighting; and they are operated and maintained properly, they mutually per- almost 20% is used for domestic water heating. (See Tables P.1 form as a single system. Simply put, an efficient building system and P.2). About two-thirds of the electrical power produced is is made up of many elemental systems. In buildings, mechanical consumed in buildings. In addition, U.S. buildings generate and electrical technologies are among the most expensive and about 40% of the atmospheric emissions that make up green- labor-intensive of these elemental systems. These mechanical house gases. Comparable magnitudes are used in most devel- and electrical technologies are used for heating, ventilating, and oped European and Asian countries. As a result, MEP systems air conditioning (HVAC), illumination, electrical power distribu- have a significant influence on global resource consumption and tion, plumbing and piping (water supply and sanitary drainage), associated waste and pollution. storm drainage, building telecommunications, acoustics and Developed and developing countries are totally dependent acoustical control, vertical/horizontal transportation and convey- on natural (material and energy) resources. Many less developed ing, fire protection and suppression, renewable energy sources, countries (e.g., countries in Africa, Asia [excluding Japan], re- heat recovery, and energy conservation. gions of Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia, Latin America, v vi PROLOGUE TABLE P.1 RESIDENTIAL BUILDING ENERGY USE, vironment and human health by efficiently using resources (i.e., BY PERCENTAGE. energy, materials, and water), enhancing occupant health and employee productivity, and eliminating or reducing waste and End Use Single Family Multifamily pollution. Reducing the amount of natural resources required in Space heating 52% 33% constructing and operating buildings and the amount of pollu- Appliances 22% 23% tion generated by buildings is crucial for future sustainability. In Water heating 17% 32% buildings, this can be accomplished by effectively using materi- Refrigerators 4% 6% als, increasing efficiency, and, developing and using new and re- Space cooling 4% 5% newable energy technologies. Dishwashers 1% 1% Computed from data provided in U.S. DOE Commercial Buildings Energy Consumption Survey (CBECS) 2003. MEP DESIGN AND LAYOUT MEP components and equipment influence building design and and the Caribbean) are striving to become more industrialized. layout. Dedicated building spaces or rooms must be reserved for Many Asian countries (e.g., China, India, Taiwan, and South MEP components and equipment and serve as the nucleus of Korea) and some Middle Eastern countries (e.g., Dubai, Qatar, these technologies. This can include, but is not limited to, cen- and United Arab Emirates) are examples of countries experi- tral utility plants, boiler and chiller rooms, fuel rooms, electri- encing rapid growth. These countries are becoming more cal switchboard rooms, transformer vaults, and metering and resource-use intensive at a time when their rate of population communications closets. These spaces can make up a signifi- growth is substantial. As developing countries move toward in- cant portion of a building floor area. Large commercial build- dustrialization, resource use in these countries increases sub- ings have a single mechanical room of considerable size and stantially, so that limited global resources are taxed more and often require additional rooms throughout the building. Sky- will be exhausted sooner. A growing global population coupled scrapers may have mechanical spaces that occupy one or more with ever increasing reliance on natural resources combines to complete floors. In contrast, a small commercial building or create an outcome that is alarming. This concern makes a strong single-family residence may only have a small utility room. case for integration of sustainable design practices in building The size of MEP rooms is typically tied to building occu- MEP systems. pancy type and is usually proportional to the building size; that is, hospitals and medical centers require more MEP space than schools, offices, and residences. For example, in offices, depart- SUSTAINABLE BUILDINGS ment stores, and schools, the MEP floor area is typically in the range of about 3 to 8% of the gross floor area; in hospitals, it is Sustainability is our ability to meet current needs without harm- about 7 to 15%; and in residences, it is typically less than 3%. ing the environmental, economic, and societal systems on which Allowances must be made by the building designer to locate future generations will rely for meeting their needs. It simply spaces near the habitable spaces, especially those spaces with means using resources wisely. A sustainable or green building the largest demand for heating, cooling, power, and water (i.e., is designed to lessen the overall impact of a building on the en- kitchens, restrooms, bathrooms, and so forth). TABLE P.2 COMMERCIAL BUILDING ENERGY USE, BY PERCENTAGE. Health K–12 Colleges/ End Use Office Care Retail Schools Universities Governmental Lodging Space heating 25% 23% 30% 45% 32% 36% 16% Space cooling 9% 4% 10% 6% 5% 5% 6% Ventilation 5% 3% 4% 2% 2% 3% 1% Water heating 9% 28% 6% 19% 24% 17% 41% Lighting 29% 16% 37% 19% 22% 21% 20% Cooking 1% 5% 3% 2% 1% 2% 4% Office equipment 16% 6% 4% 2% 2% 6% 3% Refrigeration Negl. 2% 1% 1% 1% 2% 2% Miscellaneous 5% 13% 5% 2% 11% 7% 6% Computed from data provided in U.S. DOE Commercial Buildings Energy Consumption Survey (CBECS) 2003. PROLOGUE vii TABLE P.3 CHARACTERISTIC PERCENTAGE OF CONSTRUCTION AND COST BREAKDOWN OF A 100 000 FT2 OFFICE BUILDING PROJECT. Percentage of Division of Work Construction Cost Breakdown Description General conditions 3% $ 750 000 General procedures, superintendent, trailer, fence, traffic control, insurance Site work 4% $ 1 000 000 Excavation/backfill, roads, walks, landscaping Concrete 8% $ 2 000 000 Concrete foundations, framing, slabs Masonry 7% $ 2 000 000 Concrete masonry, brick, stone, reinforcement, mortar, grout Metals 11% $ 2 750 000 Structural steel framing, light-gauge framing Woods and plastics 4% $ 1 000 000 Wood framing, millwork, cabinetry Thermal/moisture protection 10% $ 2 500 000 Insulation, roof coverings, caulking, cladding Doors and windows 8% $ 2 000 000 Doors, windows, glass, and glazing Finishes 9% $ 2 250 000 Drywall, plaster, floor and ceiling coverings, paint Specialties 4% $ 1 000 000 Signs, flagpoles, restroom accessories Equipment 5% $ 1 250 000 Kitchen equipment, laboratory casework Furnishings 4% $ 1 000 000 Artwork, furniture, room partitions Special construction 3% $ 750 000 Computer rooms, clean rooms Conveying systems 4% $ 1 000 000 Elevators, escalators, moving ramps, walkways Mechanical 10% $ 2 500 000 HVAC, plumbing, fire protection Electrical 6% $ 1 500 000 Power distribution, lighting, telecommunication Total 100% $25 000 000 Complete project construction costs ests of members who share a common field and promote profes- MEP SYSTEM COSTS sional and technical competence within the sustaining industry. Professional organizations, frequently called societies, consist of Design and construction costs of MEP components and equip- individuals of a common profession, whereas trade associations ment are significant in buildings. Commercial and institutional consist of companies in a particular industry. However, the buildings and large residences necessitate that an engineer de- distinction is not uniform; some professional associations sign the MEP systems, whereas, in small residences, design is also accept certain corporate members, and conversely, trade done by the mechanical and electrical trades. Design fees for associations may allow individual members. The activities of MEP systems in commercial buildings typically range from 20 both trade and professional associations are similar and the ulti- to 40% of the overall design costs, depending on building occu- mate goal is to promote, through cooperation, the economic ac- pancy type and size. tivities of the members while maintaining ethical practices. Actual MEP construction costs for buildings vary by Additionally, professional associations have the objectives of ex- building occupancy type and construction method. In resi- panding the knowledge or skills of its members and writing pro- dences and retail stores, the range is generally between 10 and fessional standards. Many governmental agencies also exist that 20% of the construction costs; for kindergarten through high support the work of these industries. Examples of professional, schools (K–12), it ranges from 15 to 30%; for office and univer- trade, and governmental entities are provided in Table P.4. sity classroom buildings, it ranges between 20 and 30%; and for hospitals and medical centers, it is typically between 25 and 50%. A characteristic percentage of construction and cost CONSTRUCTION STANDARDS breakdown of a commercial office building project is provided AND BUILDING CODES in Table P.3. In this example, mechanical and electrical systems (including conveying systems) account for 20% of the overall In the AEC industry, a standard is a set of specifications and de- project construction costs. sign/construction techniques written by a standards writing organization (see Table P.4) or group of industry professionals that seek to standardize materials, components, equipment, or MEP ASSOCIATIONS, SOCIETIES, methods of construction and operation. In the United States, AND AGENCIES a building code is a law adopted by a state or is an ordinance (a local law) approved by a local authority (a municipality or Many professional associations and trade organizations support county) that establishes the minimum requirements for design, the various MEP fields. Professional and trade associations are construction, use, renovation, alteration, and demolition of a membership organizations, usually nonprofit, that serve the inter- building and its systems. The intent of a building code is to viii PROLOGUE TABLE P.4 EXAMPLES OF PROFESSIONAL SOCIETIES, TRADE ASSOCIATIONS, GOVERNMENTAL AGENCIES, AND STANDARDS AND CODE-WRITING ENTITIES. Professional Societies U.S. Environmental Protection Association National Renewable Energy Laboratory American Institute of Architects American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Condition- Trade Associations ing Engineers American Society of Mechanical Engineers Air Conditioning Contractors of America American Society of Plumbing Engineers Air Movement and Control Association American Society of Sanitary Engineering Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute Architectural Engineering Institute of the American Society of American Boiler Manufacturers Association Civil Engineers American Gas Association Association of Energy Engineers American Water Works Association Illuminating Engineering Society of North America Construction Specifications Institute National Council of Acoustical Consultants Gas Appliance Manufacturers Association National Society of Professional Engineers Heating, Air Conditioning & Refrigeration Distributors Interna- Refrigeration Service Engineers Society tional Society of Fire Protection Engineers Hydronic Heating Association Society of Women Engineers International Telecommunications Union Mechanical Contractors Association of America Standards and Code-Writing Entities National Association of Electrical Distributors National Association of Home Builders American National Standards Institute National Association of Lighting Management American Society of Testing and Materials Companies International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials National Electrical Contractors Association International Code Council National Electrical Manufacturers Association International Fire Code Institute National Fire Protection Association National Fire Protection Association National Fire Sprinkler Association Underwriters Laboratories Plumbing-Heating-Cooling Contractors Association Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors’ National Associ- Governmental Agencies ation National Institute of Building Sciences U.S. Green Building Council U.S. Department of Energy ensure health, safety, and welfare of the building occupants. model code to address local issues. Some states adopt a uniform Building codes began as fire regulations written and enacted by statewide building code while others legally assign code adop- several large cities during the 19th century, and have evolved tion to local authorities (counties and municipalities). Techni- into a code that contains standards and specifications for mate- cally, a model building code is not a code (a law) until it is rials, construction methods, structural strength, fire resistance, formally adopted. Model codes are periodically revised, usually accessibility, egress (exiting), ventilation, illumination, energy every 3 to 5 years, to remain current with advancements and new conservation, and other considerations. practices in industry. Each time a model code is revised, it needs A model building code (i.e., International Building Code, to be reviewed and adopted into law by the governmental author- National Electrical Code, and International Mechanical Code) is ity having jurisdiction (control). As a result, different code a standardized document written by a standards writing organi- editions may be in effect in neighboring municipalities at a zation (a group of professionals) and made available for adoption specific time, which can cause confusion that can lead to design/ by state and local jurisdictions. A municipality, county, or state construction errors. Professionals in the AEC industry must be- may write its own building code, but typically it relies on adop- come familiar with and maintain a working-level understanding tion of model codes as the base of its building code, mainly be- of current codes and standards, and must work hard to keep cause it is easier. Amendments are usually made to the text of a abreast of revisions in each edition of the code.  C O N T E N T S PREFACE iv Infrared Radiation, 31 2.5 Transmission Heat Loss, 34 PROLOGUE v Thermal Conductivity, Conductance, and Resistance, 34 Thermal Resistance of Air Films and Air Spaces, 40 Chapter 1 THERMAL, ENVIRONMENTAL, Total Thermal Resistance, 41 AND COMFORT CONCEPTS 1 Overall Coefficient of Heat Transmission, 41 1.1 Thermal Concepts, 1 2.6 Thermal Bridging, 44 Heat, 1 2.7 Transmission Heat Loss in Parallel Construction Temperature, 1 Assemblies, 47 Density, 2 2.8 Temperature Gradient in Construction Assemblies, 48 Specific Heat, 2 Study Questions, 49 Specific Heat Capacity, 3 Sensible and Latent Heating, 4 Chapter 3 CONCEPTS IN BUILDING Power, 4 SCIENCE 53 1.2 Psychrometrics, 5 3.1 Building Science, 53 Air, 5 3.2 The Building, 53 Psychrometric Variables, 6 The Building Envelope, 53 Psychrometric Chart, 7 Embodied Energy, 53 Using the Psychrometric Chart, 9 Building Classifications, 54 1.3 Factors Influencing Occupant Thermal Comfort, 12 Heating/Cooling Load Classifications, 54 Body Temperature, 12 Building Mass Classifications, 56 Body Metabolism, 13 3.3 Thermal Insulation, 57 Conditions of Thermal Comfort, 13 Characteristics of Thermal Insulation, 57 Environmental Factors Affecting Thermal Comfort, 14 Types of Thermal Insulation, 59 Occupant-Related Factors Affecting Thermal Insulating Techniques, 60 Comfort, 17 Superinsulation, 63 1.4 Thermal Comfort, 18 Thermal Storage, 63 Measuring Temperature and Relative Humidity, 18 Mass and Effective Thermal Resistance, 63 The Heat Index, 20 3.4 Windows, 66 Wet Bulb Globe Temperature, 21 Performance Measures, 66 Effective and Operative Temperatures, 22 Types of Window Glazings, 67 Comfort Zones, 22 Whole-Window Performance, 69 Overall Thermal Comfort in a Space, 22 3.5 Thermal Testing, 69 Study Questions, 23 Thermographic Scanning, 69 Blower Door Testing, 69 Chapter 2 FUNDEMENTALS OF HEAT 3.6 Quality of Indoor Air, 70 TRANSFER 27 Indoor Air, 70 2.1 Modes of Heat Transfer, 27 Indoor Air Quality, 70 Introduction, 27 Indoor Air Contaminants, 71 Basic Theory, 27 Biological Contaminants, 71 2.2 Conduction, 27 Carbon Dioxide, 72 2.3 Convection, 29 Environmental Tobacco Smoke, 73 Natural Convection, 29 Combustion Pollutants, 73 Forced Convection, 29 Ozone, 73 2.4 Radiation, 30 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), 74 Ultraviolet Radiation, 30 Airborne Lead, 74 Visible Light Radiation, 31 Radon, 74 ix x CONTENTS Suspended Particulate Matter, 75 Chapter 5 COOLING LOAD COMPUTATIONS Asbestos, 75 FOR BUILDINGS 127 Sick Building Syndrome, 76 5.1 Heat Gain in Buildings, 127 Methods for Improving IAQ, 76 Introduction, 127 3.7 Ventilation, 77 Heat Gain and the Cooling Load, 128 Basic Types, 77 Units of Heat Gain and Cooling, 128 ASHRAE Standard 62, 78 5.2 Cooling Load Computations, 128 3.8 Moisture in Buildings, 78 General Approach, 128 Moisture Generated in Buildings, 78 Cooling Load Computation Methods, 129 Moisture Problems in Buildings, 78 Design Conditions, 129 Modes of Moisture Movement, 80 5.3 Residential Cooling Load Computations, 130 Types of Moisture Problems, 80 Cooling Load from Transmission through Moisture Transmission Rate, 81 Exterior Construction Assemblies, 130 Condensation from Water Vapor Infiltration Cooling Load from Glass/Windows, 132 and Diffusion, 82 Sensible Cooling Load from Infiltration/Ventilation, 134 Moisture Control, 82 Sensible Cooling Load from Internal Heat Alternative Approaches to Reducing Water Gains, 135 Vapor Infiltration, 87 Cooling Loads from Moisture (Latent Loads), 136 Need for Indoor Ventilation, 88 Total Cooling Load, 136 Need for Attic Ventilation, 88 Applying the Total Cooling Load, 136 Study Questions, 88 General Procedure for Computing Residential Cooling Loads, 137 Chapter 4 HEATING LOAD COMPUTATIONS Computing the Total Cooling Load, 140 FOR BUILDINGS 91 5.4 Cooling Energy Estimation, 141 4.1 Heat Loss in Buildings, 91 Energy Estimation Methods, 141 Building Heat Load, 91 Simplified Estimation Method for Cooling, 141 Units of Heat Loss, 92 5.5 Cooling Load Computations for 4.2 Transmission Heat Loss Computations, 92 Commercial Buildings, 143 Transmission Heat Loss in Construction Cooling Load Computation Approach, 143 Assemblies, 92 Cooling Load Computations, 143 Transmission Heat Loss in Construction Assemblies Study Questions, 149 Below Grade, 92 Transmission Heat Loss in Floors Chapter 6 HVAC EQUIPMENT 171 on Grade, 94 6.1 Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning, 171 4.3 Infiltration Heat Loss Computations, 95 History of Heating and Cooling For Infiltration, 95 Human Comfort, 171 Infiltration Heat Loss, 95 History of Space Heating, 171 4.4 Heat Loss from Ventilation, 96 History of Ventilation, 172 4.5 Heating Load Analysis, 97 History of Air Conditioning, 172 Heating Load Computation Methods, 97 Modern HVAC Systems, 172 Design Conditions, 97 6.2 Space Heating Equipment, 173 Temperatures in Unheated Spaces, 99 Boilers, 173 Internal Heat Gain, 99 Types of Boilers, 173 General Procedure, 99 Boiler Ratings, 174 Total Heating Load, 102 Boiler Capacities, 175 Future and Pick-Up Loads, 102 Boiler Efficiency, 175 4.6 Heating Energy Estimation, 102 Ancillary Boiler Equipment, 175 Energy Estimation Methods, 102 Heating Plant, 176 Degree-Days, 103 Use of Multiple Small Boilers, 176 Monthly and Seasonal Calculations, 104 Water Treatment of Boilers, 178 Approximating Heating Fuel Costs, 105 Warm-Air Furnaces, 178 Limitations, 106 Individual/Room Space Heaters, 182 Study Questions, 107 Infrared Heaters, 183 CONTENTS xi Heat Pumps, 184 Sealants and Tape, 216 Packaged Heating Units, 184 Dampers, 217 6.3 Space Cooling (Refrigeration) Equipment, 184 Louvers, Splitters, and Turning Vanes, 218 Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle, 184 Supply Outlets, 218 Direct Expansion Equipment, 188 Fans, 219 Central Air Conditioners, 188 Heating/Cooling Coils, 222 Packaged-Terminal Air-Conditioning Unit, 190 Air Cleaners and Filters, 223 Individual/Room Air Conditioners, 191 Air-Handling Units, 224 Performance Ratings for Air Conditioners Terminal Boxes, 225 and Heat Pumps, 192 7.3 Water (Hydronic) Distribution System Components, 226 Central Chilled Water Systems, 192 Piping, Fittings, Valves, and Pumps, 226 Chillers, 192 Convectors, 227 Air-Cooled Condensers, 195 Radiators, 227 Evaporative Condensers, 195 Convector Radiators, 228 Cooling Towers, 195 Fan-Coil Units, 228 Evaporative Coolers, 198 Unit Ventilators, 229 Cool Thermal Storage, 200 Induction Units, 230 6.4 Ventilation Equipment, 202 Chilled Beams, 230 Natural Ventilation, 202 7.4 Thermal Zoning, 231 Ceiling Fans, 203 7.5 Controls, 232 Whole-House Fans, 203 Thermostatic Controls, 232 Economizers, 203 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Sensors, 234 6.5 Air Humidification Equipment, 203 Relative Humidity Sensors, 234 Air Humidification, 203 Residential Control Systems, 234 Residential Humidifiers, 204 Commercial Building Control Systems, 234 Commercial Humidification Systems, 204 Building Energy Management Systems, 234 Performance, 205 7.6 Heating and Cooling System Arrangements, 236 6.6 Air Dehumidification Equipment, 205 Classification of HVAC Distribution Systems, 236 Conventional Dehumidification Systems, 205 Air Distribution System Arrangements, 237 Desiccant Dehumidification Systems, 205 Water Temperature Classifications, 240 6.7 Fuel and Energy Sources, 206 Piping Arrangements, 240 Electricity, 206 Water-Loop Heat Pump System, 242 Gas, 206 Chilled Beam System, 243 Heating Oil, 207 7.7 Ventilation Systems, 243 Coal, 207 Mechanical Ventilation, 243 Combustion Air Requirements, 207 Economizers, 244 6.8 District Heating and Cooling, 208 Night Precooling, 245 District Heating, 208 7.8 Compensation for Nonstandard Altitude District Cooling, 209 and Temperature, 245 6.9 Energy Recovery, 209 Compensation for Ducts and Fans, 245 Heat Recovery Ventilation, 209 Compensation for Combustion Equipment, 245 Heat Recovery for Space Heating, 210 Compensation for Heat Transfer Equipment, 247 Study Questions, 210 7.9 Mechanical Rooms, 247 7.10 Codes and Standards, 247 Chapter 7 HVAC DISTRIBUTION Codes, 247 COMPONENTS AND HVAC Construction Drawings, 248 SYSTEMS 213 Study Questions, 251 7.1 Distribution Systems and Equipment, 213 Basic HVAC Systems, 213 Chapter, 8 HVAC AIR DISTRIBUTION HVAC Distribution Components, 213 SYSTEMS 253 7.2 Air Delivery System Components, 213 8.1 Airflow Fundamentals, 253 Ductwork, 213 Standard Air, 253 Duct Insulation, 216 Air Velocity, 253 xii CONTENTS Volumetric Flow Rate, 253 9.3 Hot Water Heating Distribution Devices, 320 Air Pressure, 253 Heat Distribution Device, 320 Airflow, 254 Device Ratings, 322 Noise and Airflow, 254 9.4 Basic Distribution System Design, 323 8.2 All-Air Systems, 254 9.5 Boiler Selection, 329 Large All-Air Systems, 254 9.6 Installed and Existing Systems, 331 Small All-Air Systems, 255 9.7 System Installation, 332 8.3 Ductwork, 259 Study Questions, 335 Ducts, 259 Duct Layout, 260 Chapter 10 HVAC ELECTRIC HEATING Basic Systems, 261 Duct Insulation and Sealing, 262 SYSTEMS 337 10.1 Systems, 337 8.4 Equipment, 262 Baseboard, 337 Fans, 262 Resistance Cable, 337 Basic Equipment, 263 Radiant Panels and Mats, 337 Dampers, 263 Unit Heaters, 337 Air Terminals and Terminal Units, 263 Electric Furnaces, 338 8.5 Basic System Hydraulics, 263 Rooftop Units, 338 Aspect Ratio, 263 Infrared Heaters, 338 Effect of Duct Shape, 263 Packaged Terminal Units, 338 Equivalent Diameter, 264 System Combinations, 338 System Velocities, 264 Codes and Installation, 339 Duct Velocities, 264 10.2 Baseboard System Design, 339 Pressure Losses in Fittings, 265 10.3 Baseboard System Design Example, 340 Supply Registers and Diffusers, 265 10.4 Resistance Cable System Design, 340 8.6 Designing a Duct System, 267 10.5 Resistance Cable Design Example, 343 Straight Duct Pressure Losses, 267 10.6 Radiant Panel System Design, 344 Fitting Pressure Losses, 268 10.7 Radiant Panel Design Example, 344 Sizing Ductwork, 268 10.8 System Installation, 345 8.7 Sizing the Equipment, 270 Study Questions, 346 8.8 Duct Design Example (Heating), 272 8.9 Duct Design Example (Cooling), 284 8.10 System Installation, 297 Chapter 11 SOLAR THERMAL SYSTEMS 8.11 Heat Pumps, 297 IN BUILDINGS 349 8.12 Evaporative (Swamp) Cooler Design, 298 11.1 Principles of Solar Energy, 349 Temperature Differential That Can Be Achieved, 299 Solar Radiation, 349 Sizing an Evaporative Cooler, 299 Earth’s Rotation and Seasonal Tilt, 349 Study Questions, 311 Solar Altitude and Azimuth, 350 Types of Solar Radiation, 351 Chapter 9 HVAC WATER (HYDRONIC) Behavior of Solar Radiation, 353 11.2 Building Solar Energy Systems, 355 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS 315 Basic Types of Solar Systems, 355 9.1 Systems, 315 Solar Savings, 355 Basic Systems, 315 11.3 Active Solar Heating Systems, 355 Piping Arrangements, 315 Solar Collectors, 355 Piping and Fittings, 318 Collector Orientation and Tilt, 359 9.2 Boiler and Controls, 318 Thermal Storage, 359 Boiler, 318 Types of Active Heating Systems, 359 Thermostat, 318 11.4 Passive Solar Heating Systems, 363 Expansion Tank, 319 Introduction, 363 Automatic Fill Valve, 319 Fundamental Passive Solar Space Circulating Pump, 319 Heating Systems, 364 Flow Control Valve, 319 11.5 Passive Solar Space Cooling, 380 Safety Relief Valve, 319 Ventilation, 380 Air Elimination Devices, 319 CONTENTS xiii Thermal Mass Cooling, 380 Chapter 13 BUILDING WATER SUPPLY Thermal Chimney, 380 SYSTEMS 441 Passive Downdraft Evaporative Cooling Tower, 380 13.1 The Building Water Supply System, 441 11.6 A Model Solar Building, 381 Main Parts of a Water Supply System, 441 Study Questions, 383 General Water Distribution System Layout, 441 Upfeed and Downfeed Distribution, 447 Chapter 12 PLUMBING 13.2 Water Pressure Considerations, 448 FUNDAMENTALS 393 Hydrostatic Pressure, 448 12.1 Building Plumbing Systems, 393 Water Pressure, 448 Tidbits from Plumbing History, 393 Pressure Difference, 449 Modern Plumbing Systems, 394 Pressure Difference from Elevation 12.2 Water: The Substance, 394 Change (Static Head), 449 Fundamental Units, 394 Pressure Losses from Friction, 449 12.3 Water Supply, 398 13.3 Water Supply Design Concerns, 454 Water Sources, 398 Water Velocity, 454 Impurities in Water, 400 Cavitation, 454 Water Testing, 400 Cross-Connections, 454 Drinking Water Standards, 400 Backflow, 455 Water Treatment, 400 Water Hammer, 455 Water Use, 402 Thermal Expansion, 456 Water Conservation, 402 Viscosity, 457 12.4 Water Supply Systems, 403 Volume Change with Temperature Change, 457 Community Systems, 403 Aging, 459 Private Systems, 404 Pipe Insulation, 459 Well Systems, 404 Testing, 459 Water Towers and Elevated Storage Tanks, 409 Leaks, 459 12.5 Piping Materials, 409 13.4 Water Supply Pipe Design Methods, 459 Piping Materials, 410 Flow Rates, 459 Tubing and Pipe Sizes, 420 Water Consumption, 460 Pipe Pressure Rating, 420 Water Demand, 460 12.6 Fittings and Valves, 421 Fixture Units, 461 Fittings, 421 13.5 Water Temperatures, 468 Valves, 421 Cold Water, 468 12.7 Plumbing Fixtures, 424 Chilled Water, 469 Water Closets, 424 Heated Water, 469 Urinals, 425 Tempered Water, 469 Waterless Urinals, 426 13.6 Domestic Water Heating, 470 Bidets, 427 Consumption, 470 Bathtubs, 427 Types of Water Heaters, 470 Showers, 428 Energy Efficiency, 475 Lavatories, 429 Hot Water Recirculating Systems, 476 Sinks, 430 13.7 Determining Water Heater Size, 477 Laundry Tubs and Trays, 431 Design Load, 477 Drinking Fountains and Water Coolers, 431 Sizing Storage Tank Water Heaters, 477 Other Fixtures, 431 Sizing Instantaneous Water Heaters, 478 “Approved” Fixtures, 432 Sizing a Large Multifamily Water Basic Design Considerations for Restrooms, 432 Heating System, 479 Minimum Number of Fixtures, 433 13.8 Water Supply System Design Example, 483 12.8 Codes and Standards, 434 Demand Load Example, 483 Standards, 434 Upfeed System Design Example, 484 Building Codes, 434 Downfeed System Design Example, 488 Construction Drawings, 435 13.9 Pumps, 490 Administration of the Code, 435 Types of Pumps, 490 Study Questions, 435 Pump Drives, 491 xiv CONTENTS Pumping Configurations, 491 Gray Water Diversion Devices, 548 Pump Performance, 491 Gray Water Treatment Systems, 548 Pump Affinity Laws, 493 Gray Water Reuse Regulations, 549 Pump Performance Curves, 494 15.8 Alternative Wastewater Treatment Systems, 550 Using Pump Performance Curves, 495 Study Questions, 551 13.10 Water Softening, 496 Hard Water, 496 Chapter 16 BUILDING STORM WATER Water Softeners, 497 DRAINAGE SYSTEMS 553 Study Questions, 499 16.1 Storm Water, 553 Reoccurrence Interval, 553 Chapter 14 SANITARY DRAINAGE 16.2 Storm Sewers, 553 SYSTEMS 501 Private Storm Sewers, 553 14.1 Sanitary Drainage System, 501 Combined Community Sewers, 554 Conventional Sanitary Drainage and Vent System, 501 Separate Community Storm Sewers, 555 14.2 Drain and Vent Pipe Design, 510 16.3 Roof Drainage Design, 555 Drainage Fixture Units, 510 16.4 Surface Drainage, 559 Design Approach, 510 16.5 Subsurface Drainage Systems, 559 14.3 System Installation, 514 16.6 Storm Water Drainage System Installation, 561 14.4 Sanitary Drainage and Vent System Design Example, 515 Roof Drainage Installation Considerations, 561 Study Questions, 524 Storm Drainage Installation Considerations, 562 16.7 Design Example of a Storm Water Drainage System, 562 Chapter 15 WASTEWATER TREATMENT Sizing Roof Gutters and Downspouts, 562 AND DISPOSAL SYSTEMS 527 Sizing the Horizontal Storm Drain, 563 15.1 Wastewater Treatment Standards, 527 Sizing a Combined Sewer, 564 History, 527 Study Questions, 566 Wastewater, 527 Wastewater Constituents, 528 Chapter 17 ELECTRICITY THEORY 573 Other Important Wastewater Characteristics, 529 17.1 Introduction, 573 15.2 Community Wastewater Treatment and Disposal, 530 The History of Electricity, 573 Wastewater Removal, 530 17.2 Electrical Theory, 574 Sewage Treatment and Disposal, 530 The Phenomenon of Electricity, 574 Final Treatment (Disinfection), 531 Electrical Current, 576 15.3 On-Site Individual Sewage Treatment, 531 Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors, 576 On-Site Sewage Treatment, 531 Producing Current Flow, 576 Primary Treatment Equipment, 531 17.3 Units of Electricity, 577 High-Level Alarms, 534 Fundamental Units of Electricity, 577 Secondary Treatment and Disposal Equipment, 534 Ohm’s Law, 577 General Regulations, 537 Power, 578 15.4 Testing of Soil and Water for Drainage, 538 Energy, 578 Soil Evaluation, 538 17.4 Electrical Circuits, 578 Soil Percolation Test, 538 The Basic Electrical Circuit, 578 BOD Test, 541 Circuiting Configurations, 579 Coliform Test, 541 Current and Voltage Laws, 580 15.5 Design Example of an Individual OSST System, 541 Series and Parallel Circuits, 580 Design of a Septic Tank/Absorption Field, 541 17.5 The Relationship between Magnetism and Design of a Seepage Pit, 544 Electrical Current, 581 Avoiding Potential Design Problems, 546 17.6 Direct and Alternating Current, 582 15.6 OSST System Installation, 546 Direct Current, 582 Location, 546 Alternating Current, 582 Installation, 546 17.7 Transforming Voltage and Current, 585 15.7 Gray Water Reuse Systems, 547 Transformers, 585 Gray Water and Black Water, 547 17.8 Impedance and the Power Factor, 586 Gray Water Reuse, 547 Inductors, 586 CONTENTS xv Capacitors, 586 Arc Fault Protection, 634 Power Factor, 586 Nuisance Tripping, 635 PF Correction, 588 Extremely Low-Frequency Electromagnetic Fields, 635 17.9 Cost of Electrical Energy and Power, 588 18.9 Equipment Protection, 637 Energy Charge, 589 Ground Fault Protection of Equipment, 637 Power “Demand” Charge, 589 Surge Protection, 637 Demand Limiting and Load Shedding, 591 Inrush Current Protection, 638 Time-of-Use Rates, 592 Lightning Protection, 638 Additional Charges, 592 Equipment for Hazardous Locations, 638 Study Questions, 592 Study Questions, 639 Chapter 18 BUILDING ELECTRICAL Chapter 19 BUILDING ELECTRICAL DESIGN MATERIALS AND PRINCIPLES 643 EQUIPMENT 595 19.1 Electrical Codes, Licenses, and Permits, 643 18.1 Power Generation and Transmission, 595 The Electrical Code, 643 18.2 Building Electrical Service Equipment, 596 Manufacturing Standards, 643 Service Entrance Conductors, 596 Licensing, 644 Service Entrance, 596 Permits, 644 Switchboards, 597 19.2 Electrical Construction Drawings, 644 Panelboards, 597 19.3 Building System Voltages, 646 Building Transformers, 598 Supply Voltages, 646 18.3 Overcurrent Protection: Fuses and Circuit Breakers, 601 System Voltages, 647 Circuit Breakers, 602 Circuit Wiring, 647 Fuses, 602 Common Building System Voltages, 648 OCP Device Ratings, 603 System, Utilization, and Maximum Voltages, 652 18.4 Utilization Equipment and Devices, 604 19.4 Grounded and Ungrounded Conductors, 652 Outlets, Receptacles, and Plugs, 604 Grounded Conductor, 653 Switches, 605 Neutral Conductor, 653 18.5 Conductors, 611 Load Balancing, 653 Wire, 611 19.5 System and Circuit Grounding, 654 Buses, 613 Grounding, 654 Conductor Material, 613 Grounding Requirements, 655 Conductor Insulation, 614 19.6 The Building Electrical System, 656 Cable, 614 Residential Systems, 656 Cords, 625 Multifamily Dwellings, 656 Concealed Knob-and-Tube Wiring, 625 Commercial/Industrial Systems, 656 Conductor Power Loss, 625 19.7 Conductor Requirements, 663 Conductor Ampacity, 626 Conductor Materials, 663 Voltage Drops in Conductors, 627 Conductor Insulation, 663 18.6 Enclosures and Raceways, 627 Conductor Ampacity Requirements, 663 Enclosures, 627 Conductor Voltage Drop Requirements, 665 Electrical Boxes, 627 Insulation Color Coding and Conduit and Other Raceways, 628 Identification Markings, 667 Busways, 629 19.8 Cable, Raceway, and Enclosure Wireways, 629 Requirements, 667 18.7 Electric Motors, 630 Cable and Raceway Requirements, 667 Motor Ratings, 631 Box/Enclosure Requirements, 669 Types of Motors, 632 19.9 Branch Circuit Requirements, 671 Motor Controllers, 632 Branch Circuiting, 671 18.8 Occupant Protection, 633 Types of Branch Circuits, 671 Need for Occupant Protection, 633 Split Wiring Receptacles, 671 Tamper-Resistant Receptacles, 633 Branch Circuit Rating and Loads, 672 Ground Fault Interruption, 633 Continuous Loads, 680 xvi CONTENTS Branch Circuit Conductor Size, 680 Fluorescent Luminaire Efficacy, 718 Residential Branch Circuit Wiring, 681 High-Intensity Discharge Lamps, 719 19.10 Device and Equipment Requirements, 681 Blended Lamps, 720 Requirements for Switches and Receptacles, 681 Solid-State Lighting, 721 Overcurrent Protection (Circuit Breakers Mercury Content of Lamps, 723 and Fuses) Requirements, 681 20.7 Forms of Architectural Lighting, 723 Feeder Requirements, 682 Architectural Lighting, 723 Switchboard and Panelboard Requirements, 682 Emergency and Safety Lighting, 724 Service Entrance Equipment Requirements, 683 20.8 Lighting Installations, 724 Transformer Requirements, 683 Traditional Lighting Installations, 724 19.11 Occupant Protection Requirements, 685 Reflector Lamps, 730 Tamper-Resistant Receptacle Requirements, 685 Remote-Source Lighting Installations, 730 Ground Fault Circuit Protection Requirements, 685 20.9 Light Distribution and Glare, 731 Arc Fault Circuit Protection Requirements, 686 Distribution of Light, 731 19.12 Electrical System Design, 686 Glare, 732 Preliminary Design Guidelines, 686 Glare Control, 732 Basic Design Considerations, 686 20.10 Illuminance and Luminance, 733 Design Guidelines for Common Spaces, 687 Luminance, 733 19.13 Design Example, 689 Illuminance, 733 Circuit Design, 689 Recommended Illuminance, 734 Load Computations, 693 20.11 Principles of Lighting Design, 735 Study Questions, 699 Basic Design Approach, 735 Computations for Illuminance from a Chapter 20 LIGHT AND ARCHITECTURAL Single Point Source, 735 LIGHTING SYSTEMS 701 Average Illuminance Levels at the Work Plane, 737 20.1 A Chronicle of Artificial Lighting, 701 Calculating Average Illuminance Levels, 737 Historical Perspective, 701 Luminaire Spacing, 744 Professional Organizations, 702 Spacing Criterion, 744 Standards and Codes, 702 Power Density and Power Allowance, 745 20.2 Elements of Seeing, 702 Reducing the Cooling Load, 746 The Visual System, 702 Benefits of Energy-Efficient Lighting, 746 The Eye, 702 20.12 Lighting Design Practices and Considerations, 747 20.3 Light, 703 Historical Design Practices, 747 Electromagnetic Radiation, 703 Architectural Lighting Design, 747 Visible Light, 704 Exit Illumination and Marking, 749 Behavior of Light, 704 20.13 Lighting System Controls, 749 20.4 The Color of Light, 705 20.14 Daylighting Principles, 750 Color Perception, 705 Fundamental Principles, 750 Color Quality, 706 Daylight, 751 Visual Acuity, 706 Glazings, 751 20.5 Characteristics of Artificial Lighting, 706 Types of Glazing Materials, 752 Lamps, Luminaires, and Light Fixtures, 706 Daylighting Strategies, 752 Light Output, 706 How Much Area, 755 Luminous Efficacy, 708 Study Questions, 756 Correlated Color Temperature, 708 Color Rendering Index, 709 Chapter 21 LIFE SAFETY SYSTEMS Spectral Power Distribution Data, 709 IN BUILDINGS 759 Lamp Life, 709 21.1 Fire in Buildings, 759 Depreciation of Lamp Output, 711 History of Firefighting, 759 20.6 Types of Artificial Light Sources, 711 Noteworthy Building Fire Catastrophes, 759 Incandescent Lamps, 711 Fire, 760 Tungsten-Halogen Lamps, 713 Progression of Fire, 761 Gaseous Discharge Lamps, 713 Classifications of Fires, 761 Fluorescent Lamps, 714 Extinguishing a Fire, 761 CONTENTS xvii Performance of Materials in a Fire, 761 Behavior of Sound, 810 Building Construction Types, 762 Noise, 812 Fire Damage in Buildings, 764 Exposure to Excessive Noise, 812 21.2 Passive Fire Protection, 764 Reverberant Sound, 812 Fire-Resistive Construction, 764 Reverberation Time, 813 Fire-Protective Materials, 765 Optimum Reverberation Times, 814 Fire Doors and Windows, 765 Vibration, 815 Fire and Smoke Dampers, 766 Sound Transmission in Buildings, 815 Fire and Smoke Ratings, 766 Construction Noise, 815 21.3 Active Fire Protection and Suppression, 769 23.2 Sound Ratings, 815 Active Fire Protection, 769 Transmission/Isolation Ratings, 815 Automatic Fire Protection Systems, 770 Impact Ratings, 820 Automatic Sprinkler Testing and Maintenance, 778 Absorption Ratings, 821 Influence on Building Design, 778 Equipment Noise, 821 Automatic Sprinkler Systems in Residences, 779 23.3 Acoustical Design in Buildings, 823 Portable Fire Extinguishers, 780 Surrounding Environment, 823 Smoke Control Systems, 781 Arrangement and Layout of Rooms, 824 21.4 Fire Detection and Alarm Systems, 781 Shape of Rooms, 825 Fire Alarm Systems, 781 Absorbing Surfaces, 826 Smoke Alarms, 782 Focusing Surfaces, 826 Smoke and Heat Detectors, 782 Isolation of Vibration, 826 Manual Pull Stations, 784 Isolation of Impact, 826 Alarms, 784 Isolation of Sound, 827 Emergency Voice Communication Systems, 784 Sound Masking, 830 Fire Detection and Alarm Systems, 784 Active Noise Control, 830 21.5 Building Security, 786 Study Questions, 831 Study Questions, 791 Chapter 24 BUILDING CONVEYING Chapter 22 BUILDING SYSTEMS 833 TELECOMMUNICATION 24.1 Elevators, 833 Elevator Technologies, 833 SYSTEMS 793 Basic Components of an Elevator 22.1 Telecommunication Systems, 793 System, 836 Historical Perspective, 793 Classifications of Elevators, 837 Fundamentals of Telecommunications Systems, 794 Elevator Design Criteria, 837 Telecommunication Networks, 794 24.2 Escalators, 839 Transmission Media, 796 Electromagnetic Interference, 800 Basic Components of an Escalator System, 840 Escalator Arrangement, 842 22.2 Structured Building Telecommunication Systems, 800 24.3 Walkways and Ramps, 845 Wiring and Cabling Standards, 800 24.4 Other Systems, 845 Telecommunication Cabling and Pathways, 800 Lifts, 845 Structured Cabling Systems, 801 People Movers, 846 22.3 Advanced Wiring Systems for Homes, 806 Material-Handling Equipment, 846 Advanced Home Wiring Systems, 806 Paternoster, 847 Wiring System Components, 806 24.5 Safety, 847 Study Questions, 807 Accidents, 847 Licensing, 847 Chapter 23 ACOUSTICAL CONTROL Study Questions, 847 SYSTEMS IN BUILDINGS 809 23.1 Fundamentals of Sound, 809 Chapter 25 EMERGING SUSTAINABLE Acoustics, 809 TECHNOLOGIES 849 The Human Ear, 809 25.1 Sustainable Buildings, 849 Sound, 809 Sustainability, 849 Intensity of Sound, 810 Sustainable Buildings, 849 xviii CONTENTS Sustainable Building Programs, 850 Wind Direction, 874 Sustainability and the “P-Green” Building, 850 Fluctuating Wind Speed and Direction, 875 Material in this Chapter, 850 Effects of Surface Roughness and Elevation, 877 25.2 Combined Heat and Power (Cogeneration) Systems, 851 Wind Energy Systems, 877 Building CHP Systems, 852 Wind Power Density, 884 25.3 Geothermal Energy Systems, 853 Betz Limit, 884 Direct Use of Geothermal Energy, 853 Wind Turbine Power, 884 Geothermal Heat Pump Systems, 853 Wind Power Classification, 886 Types of GHP Ground Loops, 855 Wind System Sizing, 886 GHP Site Evaluation, 858 Wind Turbine Economics, 889 GHP System Efficiency, 858 25.7 Hydropower Systems, 889 25.4 Biomass, 858 Basic Systems, 889 Introduction, 858 Run-of-the-River Systems, 890 Types of Biomass Fuels, 859 25.8 Rainwater Harvesting, 894 Types of Biomass Technologies, 860 Rainwater, 894 Building Heating with Biomass, 861 Rainwater Collection/Harvesting, 894 25.5 Photovoltaic (Solar Electricity) Power, 862 Rainwater Harvesting Systems, 894 PV Cells, 862 Quality of Harvested Water, 895 PV Cell Conversion Efficiency, 864 Design of a Rainwater Harvesting System, 895 PV Cell Configurations, 864 Study Questions, 912 PV Cell Position, 865 Photovoltaic Systems, 865 APPENDIX A 915 Inverters, 866 Inverter Interference, 867 APPENDIX B 916 Inverter Configuration, 867 Battery Storage, 868 APPENDIX C 917 Batteries, 868 Battery Ratings, 868 APPENDIX D 920 Heat Storage, 869 PV System Sizing, 869 APPENDIX E 923 Conducting a Power Load Analysis, 872 25.6 Wind Energy Systems, 872 INDEX 924 The Wind, 872 Wind Speed, 872  C H A P T E R O N E THERMAL, ENVIRONMENTAL, AND COMFORT CONCEPTS undergoes complete combustion with oxygen. Some heating 1.1 THERMAL CONCEPTS values of common fuels are shown in Table 1.1. Magnitudes of energy consumption are provided in Table 1.2. Heat A typical home in a heating climate will consume about Heat is the agitation or motion of atoms and molecules. It is 100 million Btu of heating energy over the heating season. thermal energy in motion. Heat always flows from a sub- stance at a higher temperature to the substance at a lower tem- Temperature perature, raising the temperature of the lower temperature substance and lowering the temperature of the higher temper- Temperature (T) is the measure of the average kinetic energy ature substance. associated with the chaotic microscopic motion of atoms and Quantity of heat (Q) is measured in British thermal units molecules within a substance. It is the measure of the intensity and joules. In scientific terms, the British thermal unit (Btu) is of the heat. The temperature of an object determines the sensa- defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature tion of warmth or coldness felt from contact with it. The same of 1 lb (0.45 kg) of water from 59.5°F (15.3°C) to 60.5°F temperature relates to the same average kinetic energy in a (15.8°C) at constant pressure of standard atmosphere pressure. substance. In broad terms, one Btu is about the amount of heat given off by A thermometer is an instrument that measures the tem- the combustion of one wooden match. The Btu is equivalent to perature of a body or substance in a quantitative way. A ther- 1055 joules (J). A Btu is equivalent to 0.293 watt-hour (W-hr). mometer can be read on any of a number of different scales, as Relationships are as follows: 1 Btu  1055 joules (J) TABLE 1.1 HEATING (CALORIFIC) VALUES OF COMMON FUELS.  0.293 watt-hour (W-hr) Fuel Heating (Calorific) Valuea  252 calories (c) Coal (bituminous) 18 100 000 Btu/ton  0.252 kilocalories (C) Fuel oil number 2 140 000 Btu/gal 1 Joule  0.00095 Btu Natural gas 100 000 Btu/CCFb Propane 91 000 Btu/gal  0.239 calories (c) Wood (Lodgepole Pine) 21 000 000 Btu/cordc 1 watt-hour (W-hr)  3.413 Btu Wood (oak) 30 700 000 Btu/cordc 1 kilocalorie (C)  1000 calories a The heating value varies with quality of fuel. b A hundred cubic feet (CCF) is 100 ft3. Value of gas varies with altitude. Value In the construction industry, heat is customarily ex- of natural gas is typically about 83 000 CCF in Denver, CO, at 5280 ft (1600 m) pressed in much larger quantities, such as one thousand Btu above sea level. c A cord is a tightly stacked 4  8  8 pile of wood, that is, 128 ft3 of wood (called the MBtu or kBtu) or one million Btu (MMBtu). M is and space. the Roman numeral that represents 1000, so MM is one million (1000 times 1000). A therm is used to express the energy con- tent of fuels and equal to 100 000 Btu. TABLE 1.2 MAGNITUDES OF ENERGY CONSUMPTION. 1000 Btu  1 MBtu  1 kBtu Use Energy Consumption 1 000 000 Btu  MMBtu  1000 kBtu Heat house for year in moderate 100 000 000 Btu 1 therm (natural gas)  100 000 Btu heating climate Apollo 17 to the moon 5 600 000 000 Btu 1000 joules (J)  kilojoules (kJ) Hiroshima atomic bomb 80 000 000 000 Btu The heating (calorific) value of a fuel, including food, Annual use—30 African countries 1 000 000 000 000 000 Btu Annual use—United States 100 000 000 000 000 000 Btu is the quantity of heat produced by its combustion under spec- Annual use—world 470 000 000 000 000 000 Btu ified conditions. It is the energy released as heat when it 1 2 CHAPTER 1 TABLE 1.3 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TEMPERATURE SCALES AT SELECTED TEMPERATURES. Temperature Scale Fahrenheit Rankine Celsius Kelvin (°F) (R) (°C) (K) Associated Temperature −459.67 0 − 273.15 0 Absolute zero 0 460 − 18 255 32 492 0 273 Water freezes 72 532 22 295 Typical target room air temperature (winter) 78 538 26 299 Typical target room air temperature (summer) 98.6 558 37 310 Average body temperature 200 660 93 366 Boiling point of water at 6500 ft (1987 m) above sea level 212 672 100 373 Boiling point of water at standard conditions described in the paragraphs that follow. Table 1.3 shows the re- The difference between heat and temperature is often confused. lationship between temperature scales at selected temperatures. Consider two containers of water: a small container holding Common temperature scales are Fahrenheit (°F) and one cup of water at 150°F and the other holding ten cups of Celsius (°C). They are defined by using the point at which ice water at the same temperature. The water in both containers is melts and water boils at the standard atmospheric pressure. On at the same temperature. However, the larger container holds the Celsius scale, the interval between the ice point and boiling ten times the amount of heat (in Btu or J). point of water are divided into 100 equal parts. The Celsius ice point is at 0 and the boiling point is at 100. (Actually, on the Density Celsius scale the boiling point of water at standard atmospheric pressure is 99.975°C in contrast to the 100 degrees defined by Mass density () of a substance is the mass per unit volume. the Centigrade scale.) The Fahrenheit ice point is at 32 and the Density is expressed in units of pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft3) or boiling point is at 212. Conversion from one form to the other is kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3). Densities of common mate- as follows: rials are provided in Table 1.4. °C  (°F  32)>1.8 Specific Heat °F  (1.8  °C)  32 In defining the fundamental definition of the Btu, it was found For example, 20°C is equal to 68°F [°F  (1.8  20°C)  32]. that one pound of liquid water increases in temperature by one In other words, 20°C is approximately equal to normal room °F when one Btu of heat is added. Samples of other substances temperature. react differently to the addition or removal of a given amount of In engineering and scientific computations, it is often heat. This reaction is dependent on the molecular composition necessary to express temperature on an absolute temperature or of a substance. Specific heat (c) is defined scientifically as the thermodynamic temperature scale. At absolute zero, molecular amount of heat that must be added or removed from one pound motion is at rest and the substance contains no internal energy. of substance to change its temperature by one degree. Specific Absolute zero is the lowest temperature possible. For all sub- heats of common materials are provided in Table 1.4. The unit stances this occurs at about 459.67°F (273.15°C). of specific heat in the engineering system is Btu per pound per The Kelvin (K) scale has its zero point at 273.15°C and degree temperature change (Btu/lb  °F) or Joules per pound the Rankine (R) temperature scale has its zero point at 459.67°F. per degree temperature change (J/kg  °C). In equation form: Therefore, the ice point of water occurs at 273 K and 460 R. The degree sign (°) is not customarily used when expressing ΔT  Q>cM temperature on the Kelvin and Rankine scales. Some engineer- Q  cM ΔT ing fields in the U.S. express thermodynamic temperature using the Rankine scale, but in scientific fields the Kelvin scale is where ΔT equals the change in temperature, M equals the mass used exclusively. Conversion is found by the following expres- of the substance in lb or kg, Q equals the amount of heat re- sions, where °F is degrees Fahrenheit, R equals degrees Rank- moved or added in Btu or J, and c equals specific heat of the ine, °C is degrees Celsius, and K equals degrees Kelvin: substance in Btu/lb  °F or J/kg  °C. For example, the specific heat of standard concrete is R  °F  459.67 0.22 Btu/lb  °F. It takes the addition or removal of 0.22 Btu to K  °C  273.15 change the temperature of one pound of concrete one °F. The THERMAL, ENVIRONMENTAL, AND COMFORT CONCEPTS 3 TABLE 1.4 SELECTED PHYSICAL AND THERMAL PROPERTIES OF COMMON MATERIALS. THERMAL PROPERTIES ARE AT A TEMPERATURE OF 68°F (20°C), UNLESS SPECIFIED OTHERWISE. DATA WERE COMPILED FROM A VARIETY OF SOURCES. Mass Density Specific Heat Specific Heat Capacity 3 3 Product kg/m lb/ft kJ/kg · K Btu/lb · °F kJ/m3 · K Btu/ft3 · °F Water Water (distilled) at 39°F (4°C) 1000 62.4 4.19 1.00 4190 62.4 Water (distilled) at 68°F (20°C) 99.8 62.3 4.15 0.99 414 61.7 Water (seawater) at 39°F (4°C) 1030 64 3.94 0.94 4058 60.2 Ice at 32°F (0°C) 910 57 2.11 0.504 1920 28.7 Liquids Alcohol 790 49 2.93 0.70 2315 34.3 Ammonia 610 38 0.47 0.11 287 4.2 Ethylene glycol 1104 69 2.38 0.57 2628 39.4 Glycerin 1270 79 2.41 0.58 3061 45.8 Paraffin 810 50 2.14 0.51 1733 25.5 Gasoline 700 to 750 44 to 47 2.09 0.50 Turpentine 870 54 1.98 0.33 1723 17.8 Solid Metals and Alloys Aluminum 2690 168 0.912 0.218 2453 36.6 Brass 8100 505 0.377 0.090 3054 45.5 Bronze 8450 529 0.435 0.104 3676 55.0 Copper 8650 551 0.389 0.093 3365 51.2 Gold 19 200 1200 0.130 0.031 2496 37.2 Iron (cast) 7480 467 0.460 0.110 3441 51.4 Iron (wrought) 7850