Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings (11th Edition) PDF

ELEVENTH EDITION Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings  ELEVENTH EDITION Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings Walt...

ELEVENTH EDITION Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings  ELEVENTH EDITION Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings Walter T. Grondzik Architectural Engineer Ball State University Alison G. Kwok Professor of Architecture University of Oregon Benjamin Stein Consulting Architectural Engineer John S. Reynolds Professor of Architecture University of Oregon John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Part opener pages are from the drawing set for the Lillis Business Complex at University of Oregon, designed by SRG Partnership, Portland, OR. DISCLAIMER The information in this book has been derived and extracted from a multitude of sources including building codes, fire codes, industry codes and standards, manufacturer’s literature, engineering reference works, and personal professional experience. It is presented in good faith. Although the authors and the publisher have made every reasonable effort to make the information presented accurate and authoritative, they do not warrant, and assume no liability for, its accuracy or completeness or fitness for any specific purpose. The information is intended primarily as a learning and teaching aid, and not as a final source of information for the design of building systems by design professionals. It is the responsibility of users to apply their professional knowledge in the application of the information presented in this book, and to consult original sources for current and detailed information as needed, for actual design situations. This book is printed on acid-free paper. ∞ Copyright © 2010 by John Wiley & Sons. All rights reserved. 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Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www.wiley.com. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: Mechanical and electrical equipment for buildings / Walter T. Grondzik... [et al.]. — 11th ed. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN 978-0-470-19565-9 (cloth) 1. Buildings—Mechanical equipment. 2. Buildings—Electric equipment. 3. Buildings— Environmental engineering. I. Grondzik, Walter T. TH6010.S74 2010 626—dc22 2008049902 Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1  Contents Preface xvii Acknowledgments xix PA RT I D E S I G N C O N T E X T 1 C HAPTE R 1 3.4 Analyzing the Site 55 DESIGN PROCESS....................... 3 3.5 Site Design Strategies 55 1.1 Introduction 4 3.6 Direct Sun and Daylight 57 1.2 Design Intent 7 3.7 Sound and Airflow 65 1.3 Design Criteria 8 3.8 Rain and Groundwater 76 1.4 Methods and Tools 8 3.9 Plants 80 1.5 Validation and Evaluation 9 3.10 Case Study—Site and Resource Design 83 1.6 Influences on the Design Process 10 1.7 A Philosophy of Design 16 CHAPTER 4 1.8 Lessons from the Field 21 COMFORT AND DESIGN STRATEGIES....... 89 1.9 Case Study—Design Process 22 4.1 The Body 89 4.2 Thermal Comfort 91 C HAPTE R 2 4.3 Design Strategies for Cooling 104 ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES............ 27 4.4 Design Strategies for Heating 108 2.1 Introduction 27 4.5 Combining Strategies 111 2.2 Energy 29 4.6 Visual and Acoustical Comfort 111 2.3 Water 32 2.4 Materials 34 CHAPTER 5 2.5 Design Challenges 39 INDOOR AIR QUALITY.................. 115 2.6 How Are We Doing? 42 5.1 Indoor Air Quality and Building Design 116 2.7 Case Study—Design Process and 5.2 Pollutant Sources and Impacts 117 Environmental Resources 44 5.3 Predicting Indoor Air Quality 120 5.4 Zoning for IAQ 122 C HAPTE R 3 5.5 Passive and Low-Energy Approaches for SITES AND RESOURCES................. 49 Control of IAQ 125 3.1 Climates 49 5.6 Active Approaches for Control of IAQ 133 3.2 Climates within Climates 51 5.7 IAQ, Materials, and Health 149 3.3 Buildings and Sites 54 PA RT I I T H E R M A L C O N T R O L 151 C HAPTE R 6 6.5 Shading 164 SOLAR GEOMETRY AND 6.6 Shadow Angles and Shading Masks 167 SHADING DEVICES.................... 153 6.1 The Sun and Its Position 153 CHAPTER 7 6.2 Solar versus Clock Time 156 HEAT FLOW.......................... 175 6.3 True South and Magnetic Deviation 157 7.1 The Building Envelope 175 6.4 Sunpath Projections 157 7.2 Building Envelope Design Intentions 176 v vi CONTENTS 7.3 Sensible Heat Flow through Opaque Walls 8.14 Passive Cooling Calculation and Roofs 180 Procedures 291 7.4 Latent Heat Flow through the Opaque 8.15 Case Study—Designing for Heating and Envelope 197 Cooling 319 7.5 Heat Flow through Transparent/Translucent Elements 199 CHAPTER 9 HVAC FOR SMALLER BUILDINGS......... 325 7.6 Trends in Envelope Thermal Performance 204 9.1 Review of the Need for Mechanical 7.7 Heat Flow via Air Movement 206 Equipment 325 7.8 Calculating Envelope Heat Flows 207 9.2 Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning 7.9 Envelope Thermal Design Standards 211 (HVAC): Typical Design Processes 326 9.3 Equipment Location and Service CHAPTE R 8 Distribution 327 DESIGNING FOR HEATING AND COOLING...215 9.4 Controls for Smaller Building Systems 329 8.1 Organizing the Problem 216 9.5 Refrigeration Cycles 329 8.2 Zoning 218 9.6 Cooling-Only Systems 331 8.3 Daylighting Considerations 219 9.7 Heating-Only Systems 338 8.4 Passive Solar Heating Guidelines 225 9.8 Heating/Cooling Systems 363 8.5 Summer Heat Gain Guidelines 238 9.9 Psychrometrics and Refrigeration 374 8.6 Passive Cooling Guidelines 240 8.7 Reintegrating Daylighting, Passive Solar C H A P T E R 10 LARGE-BUILDING HVAC SYSTEMS........ 377 Heating, and Cooling 256 8.8 Calculating Worst Hourly Heat Loss 258 10.1 HVAC and Building Organization 377 8.9 Calculations for Heating-Season Fuel 10.2 HVAC System Types 393 Consumption (Conventional Buildings) 260 10.3 Central Equipment 401 8.10 Passive Solar Heating Performance 263 10.4 Air Distribution within Spaces 429 8.11 Approximate Method for Calculating Heat 10.5 All-Air HVAC Systems 436 Gain (Cooling Load) 281 10.6 Air and Water HVAC Systems 442 8.12 Psychrometry 286 10.7 All-Water HVAC Systems 452 8.13 Detailed Hourly Heat Gain (Cooling Load) 10.8 District Heating and Cooling 454 Calculations 289 10.9 Cogeneration 456 PA RT I I I I L L U M I N AT I O N 465 CHAPTE R 1 1 11.10 Luminance Measurement 477 LIGHTING FUNDAMENTALS............. 467 11.11 Reflectance Measurements 478 11.1 Introductory Remarks 467 11.12 Inverse Square Law 478 11.13 Luminous Intensity: Candela PHYSICS OF LIGHT 468 Measurements 480 11.2 Light as Radiant Energy 468 11.14 Intensity Distribution Curves 480 11.3 Transmittance and Reflectance 469 11.4 Terminology and Definitions 469 LIGHT AND SIGHT 481 11.5 Luminous Intensity 471 11.15 The Eye 481 11.6 Luminous Flux 471 11.16 Factors in Visual Acuity 482 11.7 Illuminance 472 11.17 Size of the Visual Object 484 11.8 Luminance, Exitance, and Brightness 473 11.18 Subjective Brightness 484 11.9 Illuminance Measurement 476 11.19 Contrast and Adaptation 485  CONTENTS vii 11.20 Exposure Time 488 12.10 Tungsten-Halogen Lamp Types 537 11.21 Secondary Task-Related Factors 488 GASEOUS DISCHARGE LAMPS 540 11.22 Observer-Related Visibility Factors 489 12.11 Ballasts 540 11.23 The Aging Eye 490 FLUORESCENT LAMPS 543 QUANTITY OF LIGHT 491 12.12 Fluorescent Lamp Construction 543 11.24 Illuminance Levels 491 12.13 Fluorescent Lamp Labels 546 11.25 Illuminance Category 492 12.14 Fluorescent Lamp Types 546 11.26 Illuminance Recommendations 493 12.15 Characteristics of Fluorescent Lamp QUALITY OF LIGHTING 497 Operation 547 11.27 Considerations of Lighting Quality 497 12.16 Federal Standards for Fluorescent 11.28 Direct (Discomfort) Glare 497 Lamps 550 11.29 Veiling Reflections and Reflected 12.17 Special Fluorescent Lamps 550 Glare 500 12.18 Compact Fluorescent Lamps 551 11.30 Equivalent Spherical Illumination and HIGH-INTENSITY DISCHARGE LAMPS 552 Relative Visual Performance 506 12.19 Mercury Vapor Lamps 552 11.31 Control of Reflected Glare 508 12.20 Metal-Halide Lamps 555 11.32 Luminance Ratios 512 12.21 Sodium-Vapor Lamps 557 11.33 Patterns of Luminance: Subjective Reactions 12.22 Low-Pressure Sodium Lamps 559 to Lighting 512 OTHER ELECTRIC LAMPS 559 FUNDAMENTALS OF COLOR 514 12.23 Induction Lamps 559 11.34 Color Temperature 514 12.24 Light-Emitting Diodes 560 11.35 Object Color 515 12.25 Sulfur Lamps 561 11.36 Reactions to Color 518 12.26 Fiber Optics 561 11.37 Chromaticity 518 11.38 Spectral Distribution of Light Sources 519 C H A P T E R 13 11.39 Color Rendering Index 522 LIGHTING DESIGN PROCESS............ 563 13.1 General Information 563 C HAPTE R 1 2 13.2 Goals of Lighting Design 563 LIGHT SOURCES...................... 525 13.3 Lighting Design Procedure 564 12.1 Basic Characteristics of Light Sources 525 13.4 Cost Factors 566 12.2 Selecting an Appropriate Light Source 526 13.5 Power Budgets 566 13.6 Task Analysis 567 DAYLIGHT SOURCES 526 13.7 Energy Considerations 569 12.3 Characteristics of Daylight 526 13.8 Preliminary Design 572 12.4 Standard Overcast Sky 527 13.9 Illumination Methods 573 12.5 Clear Sky 529 13.10 Types of Lighting Systems 573 12.6 Partly Cloudy Sky 530 13.11 Indirect Lighting 573 ELECTRIC LIGHT SOURCES 531 13.12 Semi-Indirect Lighting 575 13.13 Direct-Indirect and General Diffuse INCANDESCENT LAMPS 531 Lighting 576 12.7 The Incandescent Filament Lamp 531 13.14 Semi-Direct Lighting 576 12.8 Special Incandescent Lamps 535 13.15 Direct Lighting 576 12.9 Tungsten-Halogen (Quartz–Iodine) 13.16 Size and Pattern of Luminaires 580 Lamps 536 13.17 Other Design Considerations 585 viii CONTENTS C HAPTE R 1 4 15.20 Calculation of Light Loss Factor 661 DAYLIGHTING DESIGN................. 587 15.21 Determination of the Coefficient of 14.1 The Daylighting Opportunity 588 Utilization by the Zonal Cavity Method 663 14.2 Human Factors in Daylighting Design 589 15.22 Zonal Cavity Calculations: 14.3 Site Strategies for Daylighting Illustrative Examples 665 Buildings 589 15.23 Zonal Cavity Calculation by 14.4 Aperture Strategies: Sidelighting 590 Approximation 670 14.5 Aperture Strategies: Toplighting 594 15.24 Effect of Cavity Reflectances on 14.6 Specialized Daylighting Strategies 594 Illuminance 672 14.7 Daylight Factor 598 15.25 Modular Lighting Design 673 14.8 Components of Daylight 598 15.26 Calculating Illuminance at a Point 673 14.9 Guidelines for Preliminary Daylighting 15.27 Design Aids 674 Design 601 15.28 Calculating Illuminance from a Point 14.10 Design Analysis Methods 602 Source 676 14.11 Daylighting Simulation Programs 617 15.29 Calculating Illuminance from Linear and 14.12 Physical Modeling 621 Area Sources 678 14.13 Recapping Daylighting 623 15.30 Computer-Aided Lighting Design 678 14.14 Case Study—Daylighting Design 624 15.31 Computer-Aided Lighting Design: C HAPTE R 1 5 Illustrative Example 678 ELECTRICAL LIGHTING DESIGN.......... 629 15.32 Average Luminance Calculations 681 LUMINAIRES 629 15.1 Design Considerations 629 EVALUATION 688 15.2 Lighting Fixture Distribution 15.33 Lighting Design Evaluation 688 Characteristics 630 C H A P T E R 16 15.3 Luminaire Light Control 632 ELECTRIC LIGHTING APPLICATIONS....... 689 15.4 Luminaire Diffusers 635 16.1 Introduction 689 15.5 Uniformity of Illumination 638 15.6 Luminaire Mounting Height 645 RESIDENTIAL OCCUPANCIES 689 15.7 Lighting Fixtures 646 16.2 Residential Lighting: General 15.8 Lighting Fixture Construction 646 Information 689 15.9 Lighting Fixture Structural Support 647 16.3 Residential Lighting: Energy Issues 689 15.10 Lighting Fixture Appraisal 647 16.4 Residential Lighting Sources 690 15.11 Luminaire-Room System Efficiency: 16.5 Residential Lighting: Design Coefficient of Utilization 648 Suggestions 690 15.12 Luminaire Efficacy Rating 648 16.6 Residential Lighting: Luminaires and LIGHTING CONTROL 649 Architectural Lighting Elements 691 15.13 Requirement for Lighting Control 649 16.7 Residential Lighting: Control 692 15.14 Lighting Control: Switching 650 EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES 695 15.15 Lighting Control: Dimming 651 16.8 Institutional and Educational 15.16 Lighting Control: Control Initiation 651 Buildings 695 15.17 Lighting Control Strategy 654 16.9 General Classrooms 696 DETAILED DESIGN PROCEDURES 660 16.10 Special-Purpose Classrooms 698 15.18 Calculation of Average Illuminance 660 16.11 Assembly Rooms, Auditoriums, and 15.19 Calculation of Horizontal Illuminance by the Multipurpose Spaces 698 Lumen (Flux) Method 661 16.12 Gymnasium Lighting 700  CONTENTS ix 16.13 Lecture Hall Lighting 700 16.27 Industrial Luminance Ratios 715 16.14 Laboratory Lighting 700 16.28 Industrial Lighting Glare 715 16.15 Library Lighting 701 16.29 Industrial Lighting Equipment 715 16.16 Special Areas 702 16.30 Vertical-Surface Illumination 716 16.17 Other Considerations in School Lighting 703 SPECIAL LIGHTING APPLICATION TOPICS 716 COMMERCIAL INTERIORS 703 16.31 Emergency Lighting 716 16.18 Office Lighting: General Information 703 16.32 Floodlighting 721 16.19 Lighting for Areas with Visual Display 16.33 Street Lighting 721 Terminals 704 16.34 Light Pollution 721 16.20 Office Lighting Guidelines 709 16.35 Remote Source Lighting 723 16.21 Task-Ambient Office Lighting Design Using 16.36 Fiber-Optic Lighting 724 Ceiling-Mounted Units 712 16.37 Fiber-Optic Terminology 725 16.22 Task-Ambient Office Lighting Using 16.38 Fiber-Optic Lighting—Arrangements and Furniture-Integrated Luminaires 712 Applications 726 16.23 Integrated and Modular Ceilings 713 16.39 Hollow Light Guides 728 16.24 Lighting and Air Conditioning 713 16.40 Prismatic Light Guides 729 16.41 Prismatic Film Light Guide 730 INDUSTRIAL LIGHTING 714 16.42 Remote-Source Standards and 16.25 General Information 714 Nomenclature 734 16.26 Levels and Sources 714 PA RT I V AC O U S T I C S 737 CHAPTE R 1 7 ROOM ACOUSTICS 773 FUNDAMENTALS OF ARCHITECTURAL 18.6 Reverberation 773 ACOUSTICS.......................... 739 18.7 Sound Fields in an Enclosed Space 775 17.1 Architectural Acoustics 739 18.8 Sound Power Level and Sound Pressure 17.2 Sound 740 Level 775 17.3 Hearing 743 18.9 Noise Reduction by Absorption 777 17.4 Sound Sources 748 18.10 Noise Reduction Coefficient 780 17.5 Expressing Sound Magnitude 749 17.6 Noise 758 ROOM DESIGN 782 17.7 Vibration 765 18.11 Reverberation Criteria for Speech Rooms 782 CHAPTE R 1 8 18.12 Criteria for Music Performance 784 SOUND IN ENCLOSED SPACES........... 767 18.13 Sound Paths 785 18.1 Sound in Enclosures 767 18.14 Ray Diagrams 788 ABSORPTION 767 18.15 Auditorium Design 789 18.2 Sound Absorption 767 SOUND REINFORCEMENT SYSTEMS 792 18.3 Mechanics of Absorption 768 18.16 Objectives and Criteria 792 18.4 Absorptive Materials 770 18.17 Components and Specifications 793 18.5 Installation of Absorptive Materials 772 18.18 Loudspeaker Considerations 795 x CONTENTS C HAPTE R 1 9 STRUCTURE-BORNE NOISE 841 BUILDING NOISE CONTROL............. 797 19.22 Structure-Borne Impact NOISE REDUCTION 797 Noise 841 ABSORPTION 797 19.23 Control of Impact Noise 842 19.1 The Role of Absorption 797 19.24 Impact Insulation Class 843 19.2 Panel and Cavity Resonators 798 19.3 Acoustically Transparent Surfaces 800 MECHANICAL SYSTEM NOISE 19.4 Absorption Recommendations 801 CONTROL 843 19.5 Characteristics of Absorptive Materials 801 19.25 Mechanical Noise Sources 843 19.26 Quieting of Machines 844 SOUND ISOLATION 804 19.27 Duct System Noise Reduction 845 19.6 Airborne and Structure-Borne Sound 804 19.28 Active Noise Cancellation 848 19.29 Piping System Noise AIRBORNE SOUND 807 Reduction 850 19.7 Transmission Loss and Noise 19.30 Electrical Equipment Noise 850 Reduction 807 19.31 Noise Problems Due to Equipment 19.8 Barrier Mass 808 Location 852 19.9 Stiffness and Resonance 808 19.32 Sound Isolation Enclosures, Barriers, and 19.10 Compound Barriers (Cavity Walls) 810 Damping 852 19.11 Sound Transmission Class 814 19.12 Composite Walls and Leaks 815 STC AND IIC RECOMMENDATIONS AND 19.13 Doors and Windows 819 CRITERIA 853 19.14 Diffraction: Barriers 822 19.33 Multiple-Occupancy Residential STC/IIC 19.15 Flanking 824 Criteria 853 19.34 Specific Occupancies 854 SPEECH PRIVACY 825 19.16 Principles of Speech Privacy between OUTDOOR ACOUSTIC CONSIDERATIONS 857 Enclosed Spaces 825 19.35 Sound Power and Pressure Levels in Free 19.17 Sound Isolation Descriptors 827 Space (Outdoors) 857 19.18 Speech Privacy Design for Enclosed 19.36 Building Siting 857 Spaces 829 19.19 Principles of Speech Privacy in Open-Area REFERENCE MATERIAL 859 Offices 832 19.37 Glossary 859 19.20 Open-Office Speech Privacy Levels and 19.38 Reference Standards 861 Descriptors 836 19.39 Units and Conversions 861 19.21 Design Recommendations for Speech Privacy 19.40 Symbols 862 in Open Offices 838 PA RT V W AT E R A N D W A S T E 863 CHAPTE R 2 0 20.7 Components 893 Water and Basic Design................ 865 20.8 Case Study—Water and Basic 20.1 Water in Architecture 865 Design 902 20.2 The Hydrologic Cycle 868 20.3 Basic Planning 870 C H A P T E R 21 20.4 Rainwater 876 Water Supply........................ 909 20.5 Collection and Storage 878 21.1 Water Quality 909 20.6 Rainwater and Site Planning 883 21.2 Filtration 913  CONTENTS xi 21.3 Disinfection 915 22.6 On-Site Individual Building Sewage 21.4 Other Water Treatments 918 Treatment 1029 21.5 Water Sources 921 22.7 On-Site Multiple-Building Sewage 21.6 Hot Water Systems and Equipment 932 Treatment 1037 21.7 Fixtures and Water Conservation 959 22.8 Larger-Scale Sewage Treatment 21.8 Fixture Accessibility and Privacy 970 Systems 1047 21.9 Water Distribution 974 22.9 Recycling and Graywater 1055 21.10 Piping, Tubing, Fittings, and Controls 982 22.10 Storm Water Treatment 1060 21.11 Sizing of Water Pipes 986 C H A P T E R 23 21.12 Irrigation 994 SOLID WASTE....................... 1065 C HAPTE R 2 2 23.1 Waste and Resources 1065 LIQUID WASTE....................... 999 23.2 Resource Recovery: Central or 22.1 Waterless Toilets and Urinals 999 Local? 1070 22.2 Principles of Drainage 1005 23.3 Solid Waste in Small Buildings 1072 22.3 Piping, Fittings, and Accessories 1008 23.4 Solid Waste in Large Buildings 1074 22.4 Design of Residential Waste Piping 1015 23.5 Equipment for the Handling of Solid 22.5 Design of Larger-Building Waste Waste 1077 Piping 1018 23.6 The Service Core 1080 PA RT V I F I R E P R OT E C T I O N 1083 CHAPTE R 2 4 24.16 Automatic Fire Detection: FIRE PROTECTION................... 1085 Incipient Stage 1143 FIRE RESISTANCE, EGRESS, AND 24.17 Automatic Fire Detection: EXTINGUISHMENT 1085 Smoldering Stage 1145 24.1 Design for Fire Resistance 1085 24.18 Automatic Fire Detection: 24.2 Smoke Control 1097 Flame Stage 1149 24.3 Water for Fire Suppression 1102 24.19 Automatic Fire Detection: 24.4 Other Fire-Mitigating Methods 1123 Heat Stage 1150 24.5 Lightning Protection 1129 24.20 Special Types of Fire Detectors 1153 24.21 False Alarm Mitigation 1153 FIRE ALARM SYSTEMS 1133 24.22 Manual Stations 1155 24.6 General Considerations 1133 24.23 Sprinkler Alarms 1156 24.7 Fire Codes, Authorities, and 24.24 Audible and Visual Alarm Standards 1134 Devices 1156 24.8 Fire Alarm Definitions and Terms 1136 24.25 General Recommendations 1157 24.9 Types of Fire Alarm Systems 1137 24.26 Residential Fire Alarm Basics 1157 24.10 Circuit Supervision 1139 24.27 Multiple-Dwelling Alarm Systems 1158 24.11 Conventional Systems 1139 24.28 Commercial and Institutional Building 24.12 System Coding 1140 Alarm Systems 1158 24.13 Signal Processing 1142 24.29 High-Rise Office Building Fire Alarm 24.14 Addressable Fire Alarm Systems 1142 Systems 1159 24.15 Addressable Analog (Intelligent) 24.30 Industrial Facilities 1161 Systems 1143 xii CONTENTS PA RT V I I E L E C T R I C I T Y 1163 CHAPTE R 2 5 26.20 Unit Substations (Transformer Load PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICITY........... 1165 Centers) 1207 25.1 Electric Energy 1165 26.21 Panelboards 1210 25.2 Unit of Electric Current—the Ampere 1165 26.22 Principles of Electric Load Control 1211 25.3 Unit of Electric Potential—the Volt 1166 26.23 Intelligent Panelboards 1212 25.4 Unit of Electric Resistance—the 26.24 Electric Motors 1215 Ohm 1166 26.25 Motor Control Standards 1216 25.5 Ohm’s Law 1167 26.26 Motor Control 1216 25.6 Circuit Arrangements 1167 26.27 Motor Control Equipment 1218 25.7 Direct Current and Alternating 26.28 Wiring Devices: General Description 1219 Current 1170 26.29 Wiring Devices: Receptacles 1221 25.8 Electric Power Generation—DC 1170 26.30 Wiring Devices: Switches 1223 25.9 Electric Power Generation—AC 1171 26.31 Wiring Devices: Specialties 1224 25.10 Power and Energy 1171 26.32 Low-Voltage Switching 1224 25.11 Power in Electric Circuits 1172 26.33 Wireless Switching and Control 1228 25.12 Energy in Electric Circuits 1174 26.34 Power Line Carrier Systems 1228 25.13 Electric Demand Charges 1175 26.35 Power Conditioning 1231 25.14 Electric Demand Control 1177 26.36 Power-Conditioning Equipment 1232 25.15 Electrical Measurements 1180 26.37 Surge Suppression 1233 CHAPTE R 2 6 26.38 Uninterruptible Power Supply 1239 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS AND MATERIALS: 26.39 Emergency/Standby Power SERVICE AND UTILIZATION............ 1185 Equipment 1242 26.1 Electric Service 1185 26.40 System Inspection 1244 26.2 Overhead Service 1186 26.3 Underground Service 1186 C H A P T E R 27 26.4 Underground Wiring 1186 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS AND MATERIALS: 26.5 Service Equipment 1189 WIRING AND RACEWAYS.............. 1245 26.6 Transformers 1189 27.1 System Components 1245 26.7 Transformers Outdoors 1192 27.2 National Electrical Code 1245 26.8 Transformers Indoors: Heat Loss 1193 27.3 Economic and Environmental 26.9 Transformers Indoors: Selection 1193 Considerations 1246 26.10 Transformer Vaults 1194 27.4 Electrical Equipment Ratings 1248 26.11 Service Equipment Arrangements 27.5 Interior Wiring Systems 1248 and Metering 1195 27.6 Conductors 1249 26.12 Service Switches 1195 27.7 Conductor Ampacity 1249 26.13 Switches 1197 27.8 Conductor Insulation and Jackets 1250 26.14 Contactors 1199 27.9 Copper and Aluminum Conductors 1250 26.15 Special Switches 1199 27.10 Flexible Armored Cable 1252 26.16 Solid-State Switches, Programmable 27.11 Nonmetallic Sheathed Cable (Romex) 1252 Switches, Microprocessors, and 27.12 Conductors for General Wiring 1253 Programmable Controllers 1201 27.13 Special Cable Types 1253 26.17 Equipment Enclosures 1203 27.14 Busway/Busduct/Cablebus 1253 26.18 Circuit-Protective Devices 1204 27.15 Light-Duty Busway, Flat-Cable Assemblies, 26.19 Switchboards and Switchgear 1206 and Lighting Track 1256  CONTENTS xiii 27.16 Cable Tray 1258 28.10 Application of Overcurrent 27.17 Design Considerations for Raceway Equipment 1300 Systems 1258 28.11 Branch Circuit Design 1304 27.18 Steel Conduit 1259 28.12 Branch Circuit Design Guidelines: 27.19 Aluminum Conduit 1262 Residential 1307 27.20 Flexible Metal Conduit 1262 28.13 Branch Circuit Design Guidelines: 27.21 Nonmetallic Conduit 1262 Nonresidential 1309 27.22 Surface Metal Raceways (Metallic and 28.14 Load Tabulation 1315 Nonmetallic) 1263 28.15 Spare Capacity 1317 27.23 Outlet and Device Boxes 1263 28.16 Feeder Capacity 1317 27.24 Floor Raceways 1265 28.17 Panel Feeder Load Calculation 1320 27.25 Underfloor Duct 1266 28.18 Harmonic Currents 1322 27.26 Cellular Metal Floor Raceway 1270 28.19 Riser Diagrams 1323 27.27 Precast Cellular Concrete Floor 28.20 Service Equipment and Switchboard Raceways 1270 Design 1324 27.28 Full-Access Floor 1271 28.21 Emergency Systems 1325 27.29 Under-Carpet Wiring System 1272 C H A P T E R 29 27.30 Ceiling Raceways and Manufactured Wiring PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS.............. 1329 Systems 1275 29.1 A Context for Photovoltaics 1329 C HAPTE R 2 8 29.2 Terminology and Definitions 1331 ELECTRIC WIRING DESIGN............. 1281 29.3 PV Cells 1331 28.1 General Considerations 1281 29.4 PV Arrays 1333 28.2 Load Estimating 1283 29.5 PV System Types and Applications 1334 28.3 System Voltage 1286 29.6 PV System Batteries 1338 28.4 Grounding and Ground-Fault 29.7 Balance of System 1339 Protection 1291 29.8 Design of a Stand-Alone PV System 1340 28.5 Energy Conservation Considerations 1294 29.9 Design of a Grid-Connected PV 28.6 Electrical Wiring Design Procedure 1295 System 1343 28.7 Electrical Equipment Spaces 1296 29.10 Codes and Standards 1346 28.8 Electrical Closets 1299 29.11 PV Installations 1347 28.9 Equipment Layout 1300 29.12 Case Study—PV 1349 PA RT V I I I S I G N A L S YS T E M S 1353 CHAPTE R 3 0 MULTIPLE-DWELLING SYSTEMS 1363 Signal Systems...................... 1355 30.8 Multiple-Dwelling Entry and Security 30.1 Introduction 1355 Systems 1363 30.2 Principles of Intrusion Detection 1355 30.9 Multiple-Dwelling Television PRIVATE RESIDENTIAL SYSTEMS 1358 Systems 1364 30.3 General Information 1358 30.10 Multiple-Dwelling Telephone Systems 1364 30.4 Residential Intrusion Alarm Systems 1361 30.11 Hotels and Motels 1365 30.5 Residential Intercom Systems 1361 30.6 Residential Telecommunication and Data SCHOOL SYSTEMS 1366 Systems 1361 30.12 General Information 1366 30.7 Premise Wiring 1362 30.13 School Security Systems 1366 xiv CONTENTS 30.14 School Clock and Program INDUSTRIAL BUILDING SYSTEMS 1375 Systems 1367 30.23 General Information 1375 30.15 School Intercom Systems 1368 30.24 Industrial Building Personnel Access 30.16 School Sound Systems 1369 Control 1376 30.17 School Electronic Teaching 30.25 Industrial Building Sound and Paging Equipment 1370 Systems 1378 OFFICE BUILDING SYSTEMS 1371 AUTOMATION 1380 30.18 General Information 1371 30.26 General Information 1380 30.19 Office Building Security 30.27 Stand-Alone Lighting Control Systems 1371 Systems 1381 30.20 Office Building Communications 30.28 Building Automation Systems 1382 Systems 1372 30.29 Glossary of Computer and Control 30.21 Office Building Communications Terminology 1383 Planning 1373 30.30 BAS Arrangement 1384 30.22 Office Building Control and Automation 30.31 Intelligent Buildings 1388 Systems 1375 30.32 Intelligent Residences 1389 PA RT I X T R A N S P O RTAT I O N 1391 CHAPTE R 3 1 31.13 Cars and Signals 1407 VERTICAL TRANSPORTATION: 31.14 Requirements for the Disabled 1408 PASSENGER ELEVATORS............... 1393 ELEVATOR CAR CONTROL 1408 GENERAL INFORMATION 1393 31.15 Drive Control 1408 31.1 Introduction 1393 31.16 Thyristor Control, AC and DC 1412 31.2 Passenger Elevators 1393 31.17 Variable-Voltage DC Motor Control 1414 31.3 Codes and Standards 1394 31.18 Variable-Voltage, Variable-Frequency AC Motor Control 1414 TRACTION ELEVATOR EQUIPMENT 1394 31.19 Elevator Operating Control 1415 31.4 Principal Components 1394 31.20 System Control Requirements 1415 31.5 Gearless Traction Machines 1396 31.21 Single Automatic Pushbutton Control 1415 31.6 Geared Traction Machines 1397 31.22 Collective Control 1415 31.7 Arrangement of Elevator Machines, Sheaves, 31.23 Selective Collective Operation 1416 and Ropes 1397 31.24 Computerized System Control 1416 31.8 Safety Devices 1398 31.25 Rehabilitation Work: Performance Prediction 1417 HYDRAULIC ELEVATORS 1398 31.26 Lobby Elevator Panel 1418 31.9 Conventional Plunger-Type Hydraulic 31.27 Car Operating Panel 1419 Elevators 1398 31.10 Hole-Less Hydraulic Elevators 1401 ELEVATOR SELECTION 1420 31.11 Roped Hydraulic Elevators 1401 31.28 General Considerations 1420 31.29 Definitions 1420 PASSENGER INTERACTION ISSUES 1403 31.30 Interval or Lobby Dispatch Time and Average 31.12 Elevator Doors 1403 Lobby Waiting Time 1421  CONTENTS xv 31.31 Handling Capacity 1421 32.10 Rack and Pinion Elevators 1462 31.32 Travel Time or Average Trip Time 1422 32.11 Residential Elevators and Chair Lifts 1463 31.33 Round-Trip Time 1423 32.12 Innovative Motor Drives 1467 31.34 System Relationships 1431 31.35 Car Speed 1431 MATERIAL HANDLING 1467 31.36 Single-Zone Systems 1432 32.13 General Information 1467 31.37 Multizone Systems 1434 32.14 Manual Load/Unload 31.38 Elevator Selection for Specific Dumbwaiters 1468 Occupancies 1435 32.15 Automated Dumbwaiters 1468 32.16 Horizontal Conveyors 1468 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND SPATIAL 32.17 Selective Vertical Conveyors 1468 REQUIREMENTS OF ELEVATORS 1437 32.18 Pneumatic Tubes 1468 31.39 Shafts and Lobbies 1437 32.19 Pneumatic Trash and Linen Systems 1473 31.40 Dimensions and Weights 1437 32.20 Automated Container Delivery 31.41 Structural Stresses 1440 Systems 1473 32.21 Automated Self-Propelled Vehicles 1474 POWER AND ENERGY 1443 32.22 Materials Handling Summary 1474 31.42 Power Requirements 1443 31.43 Energy Requirements 1444 C H A P T E R 33 31.44 Energy Conservation 1445 MOVING STAIRWAYS AND WALKS....... 1477 31.45 Emergency Power 1446 MOVING ELECTRIC STAIRWAYS 1477 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS 1446 33.1 General Information 1477 31.46 Fire Safety 1446 33.2 Parallel and Crisscross 31.47 Elevator Security 1447 Arrangements 1477 31.48 Elevator Noise 1447 33.3 Location 1480 31.49 Elevator Specifications 1448 33.4 Size, Speed, Capacity, and Rise 1483 31.50 Innovative Equipment 1451 33.5 Components 1484 C HAPTE R 3 2 33.6 Safety Features 1485 VERTICAL TRANSPORTATION: 33.7 Fire Protection 1486 SPECIAL TOPICS..................... 1453 33.8 Lighting 1489 33.9 Escalator Applications 1489 SPECIAL SHAFT ARRANGEMENTS 1453 33.10 Elevators and Escalators 1490 32.1 Sky Lobby Elevator System 1453 33.11 Electric Power Requirements 1490 32.2 Double-Deck Elevators 1454 33.12 Special-Design Escalators 1491 33.13 Preliminary Design Data and Installation FREIGHT ELEVATORS 1454 Drawings 1491 32.3 General Information 1454 33.14 Budget Estimating for 32.4 Freight Car Capacity 1455 Escalators 1492 32.5 Freight Elevator Description 1456 32.6 Freight Elevator Cars, Gates, and MOVING WALKS AND RAMPS 1492 Doors 1456 33.15 General Information 1492 32.7 Freight Elevator Cost Data 1456 33.16 Application of Moving Walks 1492 33.17 Application of Moving Ramps 1493 SPECIAL ELEVATOR DESIGNS 1458 33.18 Size, Capacity, and Speed 1493 32.8 Observation Cars 1458 33.19 Components 1494 32.9 Inclined Elevators 1460 xvi CONTENTS PA RT X A P P E N D I C E S 1497 APPENDIX A APPENDIX G Metrication, SI Units, and Conversions 1499 Standards/Guidelines for Energy- and Resource-Efficient Building Design 1665 APPENDIX B Climatic Conditions for the United States, APPENDIX H Canada, and Mexico 1505 Annual Solar Performance 1669 APPENDIX I APPENDIX C Economic Analysis 1701 Solar and Daylighting Design Data 1531 APPENDIX J APPENDIX D Lamp Data 1707 Solar Geometry 1577 APPENDIX K Sound Transmission Data for Walls 1711 APPENDIX E Thermal Properties of Materials and APPENDIX L Assemblies 1591 Sound Transmission and Impact Insulation Data for Floor/Ceiling Constructions 1723 APPENDIX F Heating and Cooling Design Guidelines and APPENDIX M Information 1645 Design Analysis Software 1733 Index 1737  Preface SEVEN DECADES AND A FEW GENERATIONS The buildings of today contribute to nega- have passed since the first edition of Mechanical and tive global consequences that will impact future Electrical Equipment for Buildings was published in generations, and our approach to mechanical and 1935. At its birth, this book was 429 pages long. electrical systems must consider how best to mini- Now, in the 11th edition, the book is more than 1700 mize and mitigate—if not negate—such negative pages, an increase of 400%. Many new topics have environmental impacts. Thus, on-site resources— been added, and a few have disappeared; computer daylighting, passive solar heating, passive cooling, simulations are now routinely used in system design; solar water heating, rainwater, wastewater treat- equipment and distribution systems have undergone ment, photovoltaic electricity—share the spot- major changes; mechanical cooling has become com- light with traditional off-site resources (natural monplace; fuel choices have shifted (coal has moved gas, oil, the electrical grid, water and sewer lines). from an on-site to an off-site energy source). In recent On-site processes can be area-intensive and labor- editions, the book has increasingly added discussions intensive and can involve increased first costs that of “why” to its historic focus upon “how-tos.” require years to recover through savings in energy, Most of the systems presented in this book water, and/or material consumption. Off-site pro- involve energy consumption. As North American cesses are usually subsidized by society, often with society has moved from its early reliance on renew- substantial environmental costs. On-site energy able energy sources (wind, water, and horse power) use requires us to look beyond the building, to pay to today’s seemingly endless addiction to nonre- as much attention to a building’s context as to the newable fossil fuels, it has also added vastly to its mechanical and electrical spaces, equipment, and population and increased its per capita energy use. systems within. The resulting environmental degradation (primar- Throughout the many editions of this book, ily evident in air and water quality) has spurred another trend has emerged. Society has slowly efforts to reverse this decline. Governmental regula- moved from systems that centralize the provision tions are a part of such efforts, but this book empha- of heating, cooling, water, and electricity toward sizes the investigation of alternative fuels and design those that encourage more localized production and approaches that go beyond those minimally accept- control. Increased sophistication of digital control able to society. Designers are encouraged to take a systems has encouraged this trend. Further encour- leadership role in mitigating environmental degra- agement comes from multipurpose buildings whose dations. schedules of occupancy are fragmented and from On this note, it is becoming increasingly clear corporations with varying work schedules that that global warming is well under way. It may result in partial occupancy on weekends. Another be less clear to what precise extent our hugely factor in this move to decentralization is worker sat- increased carbon-based energy consumption is isfaction; there is increasingly solid evidence that responsible, with its associated heat release and productivity increases with a sense of individual gaseous additions to the atmosphere. But it is very control of one’s work environment. Residences are clear that the world’s supply of fossil fuel is dimin- commonly being used as office work environments. ishing, with future consequences for all buildings Expanding communications networks have made (and their occupants) that today rely so thoroughly this possible. As residential designs thus become on nonrenewable energy sources. more complex (with office-quality lighting, zones xvii xviii PREFACE for heating/cooling, sophisticated communications, hand-calculated results should point in the same noise control), our nonresidential work environ- direction as results obtained with a computer; the ments become more attractive and individual. greater the disparity, the greater the need to check Air and water pollution problems stemming both approaches. This is not to disparage the use of from buildings (and their systems and occupants) simulations, which are valuable (if not indispens- are widely recognized and generally condemned. able) in optimizing complex and sometimes coun- A rapidly increasing interest in green design on the terintuitive systems. part of clients and designers may help to mitigate This book is written with the student, the such problems, although green design is hopefully architect- or engineer-in-training, and the practic- just an intermediate step in the journey to truly sus- ing professional in mind. Basic theory, preliminary tainable solutions. design guidelines, and detailed design procedures Another pervasive pollutant affecting our allow the book to serve both as an introductory quality of life is noise. Noise impacts building siting, text for the student and as a more advanced refer- space planning, exterior and interior material selec- ence for both professional and student. This work tions—even the choice of cooling systems (as with is intended to be used as a textbook for a range of natural ventilation). Air and water pollution can courses in architecture, architectural engineering, result in physical illness, but so can noise pollution, and building/construction management. along with its burden of mental stress. A “MEEB 11” World Wide Web (WWW) This book is written primarily for the North site will provide supporting materials to enhance American building design community and has learning about and understanding the concepts, always emphasized examples from this region. Yet equipment, and systems dealt with in this book. other areas of the world, some with similar tradi- The opportunity to provide color images via this tions and fuel sources, have worthy examples of medium is truly exciting. As with previous edi- new strategies for building design utilizing on-site tions, an Instructor’s Manual has been developed energy and energy conservation. Thus, some build- to provide additional support for this 11th edi- ings from Europe and Asia appear in this 11th edi- tion. The manual, prepared by Kristen DiStefano, tion, along with many North American examples. Walter Grondzik and Alison Kwok, outlines the Listings of such buildings (and associated research- contents and terminology in each chapter; high- ers and designers) have been included in the index lights concepts of special interest or difficulty; and of this edition. provides sample discussion, quiz, and exam ques- Building system design is now widely under- tions. The manual is available to instructors who taken using computers, often through proprietary have adopted this book for their courses. software that includes hundreds of built-in assump- Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Build- tions. This book encourages the designer to take a ings continues to serve as a reference for architec- rational approach to system design: to verify intui- tural registration examinees in the United States tive design moves and assumptions and to use com- and Canada. We also hope to have provided a use- puters as tools to facilitate such verification, but ful reference book for the offices of architects, engi- to use patterns and approximations to point early neers, construction managers, and other building design efforts in the right direction. Hand calcula- professionals. tions have the added benefit of exposing all perti- WALTER T. GRONDZIK nent variables and assumptions to the designer. ALISON G. KWOK This in itself is a valuable rationale for conduct- BENJAMIN STEIN ing some portion of an analysis manually. Rough JOHN S. REYNOLDS Visitwww.wiley.com/go/meeb for the expanding set of learning resources that accompany this book.  Acknowledgments Many people and organizations have contributed appear throughout the book—citations to these firms knowledge, materials, and insights to the several edi- and individuals are found throughout the book. tions of this book. We begin this acknowledgment Testing in the classroom is a particularly valuable with those from whose work we have borrowed at way to find needed improvements in any textbook. Stu- length: J. Douglas Balcomb, Baruch Givoni, John dents at the University of Oregon have, over many years, Tillman Lyle, Murray Milne, William McGuinness, raised probing questions whose answers have resulted and Victor Olgyay; ASHRAE (the American Society in changes to succeeding editions. Valuable sugges- of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engi- tions have come from many graduate teaching fellows neers), the American Solar Energy Society (ASES), the at the University of Oregon, particularly Rachel Auer- Illuminating Engineering Society of North America bach, Christina Bollo, Alfredo Fernandez-Gonzalez, Sara (IESNA), the National Drinking Water Clearinghouse, Goenner, Jeff Guggenheim, Susie Harriman, Jake Keeler, the National Small Flows Clearinghouse, the National Angela Matt, Jonathan Meendering, Tobin Newburgh, Fire Protection Association (NFPA); and the many Roger Ota, Therese Peffer, Troy Peters, David Posada, equipment manufacturers whose product informa- Barbara Reed, Amanda Rhodes, Nick Rajkovich, Jona- tion and photographs are used to illustrate the book. than Thwaites, and Michael Walsh. Michael Ober pro- Several professionals provided valuable assis- vided unrestrained encouragement with a YouTube tance in assembling materials, and clarifying ideas video special for “MEEB.” Former Oregon students who and details. These include Michael Utzinger and Joel helped with research include Troy Anderson, Daniel Krueger (Aldo Leopold Legacy Center), Vikram Sami Irurah, Reza Javandel, Jeff Joslin, and Emily Wright. (Blue Ridge Parkway Destination Center), Craig Chris- A large portion of the work involved in producing tiansen (NREL research reports), William Lowry (cli- a manuscript is accomplished by supporting person- mate of cities), Daniel Panetta (AIWPS and recycling at nel. Among these, we wish particularly to thank Jackie California Polytechnic, San Luis Obispo), Dr. Jonathan Kingen for coordinating illustrations for this edition. Stein (computer applications), John A. Van Deusen Britni Jessup, Jocelynn Gebhart, Amanda Rhodes, Lisa (vertical transportation), and Martin Yoklic (cooltower Leal, and Rachel Auerbach receive thanks for long performance analysis). hours of assistance with file coordination and project In addition to drawings by Michael Cockram management. Adrienne Leverette—thanks for your (whose work first appeared in the 8th edition), we surprise visit and assistance. Special, and very sincere, are very pleased to include in this 11th edition illus- thanks go to Theodore J. Kwok, who gave extensive trations by Lisa Leal, Nathan Majeski, and Jonathan and prompt input on database development and trou- Meendering (who also helped illustrate the 10th bleshooting. edition). We continue to thank those who assisted Finally, we are indebted to the staff at John Wiley with illustrations for the 10th edition: Dain Carlson, & Sons for their diligent and highly professional work, Amanda Jo Clegg, Eric Drew, and Erik Winter— especially Amanda Miller, vice president and publisher; students (now professionals) who embrace the prin- Paul Drougas, acquisitions editor; Lauren Olesky, ciples and concepts of environmental technology in associate developmental editor; Sadie Abuhoff, editorial their design work and therefore clearly understood assistant; Kerstin Nasdeo, production manager, Abby what they were drawing. We also acknowledge the Saul, production assistant; and Devra Kunin at Foxxe many architects and engineers who provided illus- Editorial Services, copyeditor. trations of their buildings and design artifacts that xix  P A R T I DESIGN CONTEXT DESIGN CONTEXT O ften mechanical and electrical equip- ment for buildings is not considered until many important design decisions have already been made. In too many cases, such equipment is considered to have a corrective function, permitting a building envelope and siting to “work” in a climate that was essentially ignored. 1  2 PART I DESIGN CONTEXT DESIGN CONTEXT Part I is intended to encourage designers to use the design process to full advantage and to include both climate and the key design objectives of comfort and indoor air quality in their earliest design decisions. Chapter 1 discusses the design process and the roles played by factors such as codes, costs, and verification in shaping a final building design. The critical impor- tance of clear design intents and criteria is emphasized. Principles to guide environmentally responsible design are given. Chapter 2 discusses the rela- tionship of energy, water, and material resources to buildings, from design through demolition. The concept of environmental footprint is introduced as the ultimate arbiter of design decision making. Chapter 3 encourages viewing a building site as a collection of renewable resources, to be used as appro- priate in the lighting, heating, and cooling of buildings. Chapter 4 discusses human comfort, the variety of conditions that seem comfortable, and impli- cations of a more broadly defined comfort zone. It includes an introduction to design strategies for lighting, heating, and cooling. Chapter 5 introduces the issue of indoor air quality, which is currently a major concern of build- ing occupants and the legal profession and an underpinning of green design efforts.  1 DESIGN CONTEXT C H A P T E R Design Process IN MARCH 1971 VISIONARY ARCHITECT Malcolm Wells published a watershed article in Progressive Architecture. It was rather intriguingly and challengingly titled “The Absolutely Constant Incontestably Stable Architectural Value Scale.” In essence, Wells argued that buildings should be benchmarked (to use a current term) against the environmentally regenerative capabilities of wilder- ness (Fig. 1.1). This seemed a radical idea then—and remains so even now, over 30 years later. Such a set of values, however, may be just what is called for as the design professions inevitably move from energy- efficient to green to sustainable design in the coming decades. The main problem with Wells’s “Incontest- ably Stable” benchmark is that most buildings fare poorly (if not dismally) against the environment- enhancing characteristics of wilderness. But per- haps this is more of a wakeup call than a problem. As we enter the twenty-first century, Progressive Architecture is no longer in business, Malcolm Wells is in semiretirement, mechanical and electrical equip- ment has improved, simulation techniques have rad- ically advanced, and information exchange has been revolutionized. In broad terms, however, the design process has changed little since the early 1970s. This should not be unexpected, as the design process is simply a structure within which to develop a solution Fig. 1.1 Evaluation of a typical project using Malcolm Wells’s “absolutely constant incontestably stable architectural value scale.” The value focus was wilderness; today it might well be sustainability. (© Malcolm Wells. Used with permission from Malcolm Wells. 1981. Gentle Architecture. McGraw-Hill. New York.) 3  4 CHAPTER 1 DESIGN PROCESS DESIGN CONTEXT to a problem. The values and philosophy that under- process may span weeks (for a simple building or lie the design process absolutely must change in the system) or years (for a large, complex project). The coming decades. The beauty of Wells’s value scale design team may consist of a sole practitioner for a was its crystal-clear focus upon the values that residential project or 100 or more people located in accompanied his design solutions—and the explicit different offices, cities, or even countries for a large stating of those values. To meet the challenges of the project. Decisions made during the design process, coming decades, it is critical that designers consider especially during the early stages, will affect the and adopt values appropriate to the nature of the project owner and occupants for many years— problems being confronted—both at the individual influencing operating costs, maintenance needs, project scale and globally. Nothing less makes sense. comfort, enjoyment, and productivity. The scope of work accomplished during each of the various design phases varies from firm to firm 1.1 INTRODUCTION and project to project. In many cases, explicit expec- tations for the phases are described in professional The design process is an integral part of the larger service contracts between the design team and the and more complex building procurement process owner. A series of images illustrating the develop- through which an owner defines facility needs, ment of the Real Goods Solar Living Center (Figs. 1.2 considers architectural possibilities, contracts for and 1.3) is used to illustrate the various phases of a design and construction services, and uses the resulting facility. Numerous decisions (literally thousands) made during the design process will determine the need for specific mechanical and electrical systems and equipment, and very often will determine eventual owner and occupant sat- isfaction. Discussing selected aspects of the design process seems a good way to start this book. A building project typically begins with prede- sign activities that establish the need for, feasibility of, and proposed scope for a facility. If a project is deemed feasible and can be funded, a multiphase design process follows. The design phases are typically described as conceptual design, sche- matic design, and design development. If a project Fig. 1.2 The Real Goods Solar Living Center, Hopland, California; exterior view. (Photo © Bruce Haglund; used with permission.) remains feasible as it progresses, the design pro- cess is followed by the construction and occupancy phases of a project. In fast-track approaches (such as design-build), design efforts and construction activities may substantially overlap. Predesign activities may be conducted by the design team (often under a separate contract), by the owner, or by a specialized consultant. The prod- uct of predesign activities should be a clearly defined scope of work for the design team to act upon. This product is variously called a program, a project brief, or the owner’s project requirements. The design pro- cess converts this statement of the owner’s require- ments into drawings and specifications that permit a contractor to convert the owner’s (and designer’s) wishes into a physical reality. Fig. 1.3 Initial concept sketch for the Real Goods Solar Living Center, a site analysis. (Drawing by Sim Van der Ryn; reprinted The various design phases are the primary from A Place in the Sun with permission of Real Goods Trading arena of concern to the design team. The design Corporation.)  INTRODUCTION 5 DESIGN CONTEXT Fig. 1.4 Conceptual design proposal for the Real Goods Solar Living Center. The general direction of design efforts is suggested in fairly strong terms (the “first, best moves”), yet details are left to be developed in later design phases. There is a clear focus on rich site development even at this stage—a focus that was carried throughout the project. (Drawing by Sim Van der Ryn; reprinted from A Place in the Sun with permission of Real Goods Trading Corporation.) building project. (The story of this remarkable proj- captures the owner’s imagination so that design ect, and its design process, is chronicled in Schaeffer can continue. All fundamental decisions about the et al., 1997.) Generally, the purpose of conceptual proposed building should be made during concep- design (Fig. 1.4) is to outline a general solution to tual design (not that things can’t or won’t change). the owner’s program that meets the budget and During schematic design (Figs. 1.5 and 1.6), the Fig. 1.5 Schematic design proposal for the Real Goods Solar Living Center. As design thinking and analysis evolve, so does the specificity of a proposed design. Compare the level of detail provided at this phase with that shown in Fig. 1.4. Site development has progressed, and the building elements begin to take shape. The essence of the final solution is pretty well locked into place. (Drawing by David Arkin; reprinted from A Place in the Sun with permission of Real Goods Trading Corporation.)  6 CHAPTER 1 DESIGN PROCESS DESIGN CONTEXT conceptual solution is further developed and refined. During design development (Fig. 1.7), all decisions regarding a design solution are finalized, and con- struction drawings and specifications detailing those innumerable decisions are prepared. The construction phase (Fig. 1.8) is primar- ily in the hands of the contractor, although design decisions determine what will be built and may dramatically affect constructability. The building owner and occupants are the key players during the occupancy phase (Fig. 1.9). Their experiences Fig. 1.6 Scale model analysis of shading devices for the Real with the building will clearly be influenced by Goods Solar Living Center. This is the sort of detailed analysis design decisions and construction quality, as well that would likely occur during schematic design. (Photo, model, and analysis by Adam Jackaway; reprinted from A Place in the as by maintenance and operation practices. A feed- Sun with permission of Real Goods Trading Corporation.) back loop that allows construction and occupancy experiences (lessons—both good and bad) to be Fig. 1.7 During design development the details that convert an idea into a building evolve. This drawing illustrates the development of working details for the straw bale wall system used in the Real Goods Solar Living Center. Material usage and dimensions are refined and necessary design analyses (thermal, structural, economic) completed. (Original drawing by David Arkin; reprinted from A Place in the Sun with permission of Real Goods Trading Corporation. Redrawn by Erik Winter.)  DESIGN INTENT 7 DESIGN CONTEXT used by the design team is essential to good design practice. 1.2 DESIGN INTENT Design efforts should generally focus upon achiev- ing a solution that will meet the expectations of a well-thought-out and explicitly defined design intent. Design intent is simply a statement that out- lines the expected high-level outcomes of the design Fig. 1.8 Construction phase photo of Real Goods Solar Living process. Making such a fundamental statement is Center straw bale walls. Design intent becomes reality during critical to the success of a design, as it points to the this phase. (Reprinted from A Place in the Sun with permission of general direction(s) that the design process must Real Goods Trading Corporation.) take to achieve success. Design intent should not try to capture the totality of a building’s character; this will come only with the completion of the design. It should, however, adequately express the defining Fig. 1.9 The Real Goods Solar Living Center during its occupancy and operations phase. Formal and informal evaluation of the success of the design solution may (and should) occur. Lessons learned from these evaluations can inform future projects. This photo was taken during a Vital Signs case study training session held at the Solar Living Center. (© Cris Benton, kite aerial photographer and professor, University of California–Berkeley; used with permission.)  8 CHAPTER 1 DESIGN PROCESS DESIGN CONTEXT characteristics of a proposed building solution. important. Design criteria should be established as Example design intents (from among thousands of early in the design process as possible—certainly possibilities) might include the following: no later than the schematic design phase. As design criteria will define success or failure in a specific The building will provide outstanding comfort area of the building design process, they should for its occupants. be realistic and not subject to whimsical change. The design will consider the latest in information In many cases, design criteria will be used both to technology. evaluate the success of a design approach or strat- The building will be green, with a focus on indoor egy and to evaluate the performance of a system or environmental quality. component in a completed building. Design criteria The building will be carbon neutral. might include the following: The building will provide a high degree of flexibil- ity for its occupants. Thermal conditions will meet the requirements of ASHRAE Standard 55-2004. Clear design intents are important because they set the tone for design efforts, allow all mem- The power density of the lighting system will be no greater than 0.7 W/ft2. bers of the design team to understand what is truly The building will achieve a Silver LEED® rating. critical to success, provide a general direction for early design efforts, and put key or unusual design Fifty percent of building water consumption will be provided by rainwater capture. concerns on the table. Professor Larry Peterson, former director of the Florida Sustainable Com- Background sound levels in classrooms will not exceed RC 35. munities Center, has described the earliest deci- sions in the design process as an attempt to make the “first, best moves.” Strong design intent will 1.4 METHODS AND TOOLS inform such moves. Weak intent will result in a weak building. Great moves too late will be futile. Methods and tools are the means through which The specificity of the design intent will evolve design intent is accomplished. They include design throughout the design process. Outstanding com- methods and tools, such as a heat loss calculation fort during conceptual design may become out- procedure or a sun angle calculator. They also standing thermal, visual, and acoustic comfort during include the components, equipment, and systems schematic design. that collectively define a building. It is important that the right method or tool be used for a partic- ular purpose. It is also critical that methods and 1.3 DESIGN CRITERIA tools (as means to an end) never be confused with either design intent (a desired end) or design criteria Design criteria are the benchmarks against which (benchmarks). success or failure in meeting design intent is mea- For any given design situation there are typi- sured. In addition to providing a basis against which cally many valid and viable solutions available to evaluate success, design criteria will ensure that to the design team. It is important that none of all involved parties seriously address the techni- these solutions be overlooked or ruled out due to cal and philosophical issues underlying the design design process short circuits. Although this may intent. Setting design criteria demands the clarifi- seem unlikely, methods (such as fire sprinklers, cation and definition of many intentionally broad electric lighting, and sound absorption) are sur- terms used in design intent statements. For exam- prisingly often included as part of a design intent ple, what is really meant by green, by flexibility, by statement. Should this occur, all other possible comfort? If such terms cannot be benchmarked, then (and perhaps desirable) solutions are ruled out there is no way for the success of a design to be eval- by direct exclusion. This does not serve a client uated—essentially anything goes, and all solutions or occupants well, and is also a disservice to the are potentially equally valid. Fixing design criteria design team. for qualitative issues (such as exciting, relaxing, or This book is a veritable catalog of design guide- spacious) can be especially challenging, but equally lines, methods, equipment, and systems that serve  VALIDATION AND EVALUATION 9 DESIGN CONTEXT TABLE 1.1 Relationships between Design Intent, Design Criteria, and Design Tools/Methods Potential Possible Design Potential Design Implementation Issue Design Intent Criterion Tools Method Thermal comfort Acceptable thermal Compliance with Standard 55 graphs/ Passive climate control comfort ASHRAE Standard 55 tables or comfort and/or active climate software control Lighting level Acceptable illuminance Compliance with Hand calculations or Daylighting and/or (illuminance) levels recommendations in computer simulations electric lighting the IESNA Lighting Handbook Energy efficiency Minimal energy Compliance with Handbooks, Envelope strategies efficiency ASHRAE Standard simulation software, and/or equipment 90.1 manufacturer’s data, strategies experience Energy efficiency Outstanding energy Exceed the minimum Handbooks, Envelope strategies efficiency requirements of simulation software, and/or equipment ASHRAE Standard manufacturer’s data, strategies 90.1 by 25% experience Green design Obtain green building Meet the requirements LEED materials, Any combination of certification for a LEED gold rating handbooks, experience approved strategies to obtain sufficient rating points as means and methods to desired design ends. projects, but rather that little research-quality, pub- Sorting through this extensive information will licly shared information is captured for use on other be easier with specific design intent and criteria projects. This is clearly not an ideal model for profes- in mind. Owner expectations and designer experi- sional practice. ences will typically inform design intent. Sections of the book that address fundamental principles will (a) Conventional Validation/Evaluation provide assistance with establishment of appropri- Approaches ate design criteria. Table 1.1 provides examples of the relationships between design intent, design cri- Design validation is very common, although per- teria, and tools/methods. haps more so when dealing with quantitative con- cerns than with qualitative issues. Many design validation approaches are employed, including 1.5 VALIDATION AND EVALUATION hand calculations, computer simulations and mod- eling, physical models (of various scales and com- To function as a knowledge-based profession, design plexity), and opinion surveys. Numerous design (architecture and engineering) must reflect upon validation methods are presented in this book. previous efforts and learn from existing buildings. Simple design validation methods (such as broad Except in surprisingly rare situations, most build- approximations, lookup tables, or nomographs) ing designs are generally unique—comprising a requiring few decisions and little input data are typ- collection of elements not previously assembled in ically used early in the design process. Later stages precisely the same way. Most buildings are essen- of design see the introduction of more complex tially a design team hypothesis—“We believe that methods (such as computer simulations or multi- this solution will work for the given situation.” step hand calculations) requiring substantial and Unfortunately, the vast majority of buildings exist detailed input. as untested hypotheses. Little in the way of perfor- Building validation is much less common than mance evaluation or structured feedback from the design validation. Structured evaluations of occu- owner and occupants is typically sought. This is not pied buildings are rarely carried out. Historically, the to suggest that designers do not learn from their most commonly encountered means of validating  10 CHAPTER 1 DESIGN PROCESS DESIGN CONTEXT building performance is the post-occupancy evalu- 1.6 INFLUENCES ON THE DESIGN ation (POE). Published POEs have typically focused PROCESS upon some specific (and often nontechnical) aspect of building performance, such as way-finding or pro- The design process often appears to revolve primar- ductivity. Building commissioning and case studies ily around the needs of a client and the capabilities are finding more application as building validation of the design team—as exemplified by the establish- approaches. Third-party validations, such as the ment of design intent and criteria. There are several Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design other notable influences, however, that affect the (LEED) rating system, are also emerging. conduct and outcome of the building design pro- cess. Some of these influences are historic and affect virtually every building project; others represent (b) Commissioning emerging trends and affect only selected projects. Building commissioning is an emerging approach Several of these design-influencing factors are dis- to quality assurance. An independent commission- cussed below. ing authority (an individual or, more commonly, a team) verifies that equipment, systems, and design (a) Codes and Standards decisions can meet the owner’s project require- ments (design intent and criteria). Verification is The design of virtually every building in North accomplished through review of design documents America will be influenced by codes and standards. and detailed testing of equipment and systems Codes are government-mandated and -enforced under conditions expected to be encountered with documents that stipulate minimum acceptable building use. Historically focused upon mechanical building practices. Designers usually interface with and electrical systems, commissioning is currently codes through an entity known as the authority hav- being applied to numerous building systems— ing jurisdiction. There may be several such authori- including envelope, security, fire protection, and ties for any given locale or project (fire protection information systems. Active involvement of the requirements, for example, may be enforced sepa- design team is critical to the success of the commis- rately from general building construction require- sioning process (ASHRAE, 2005; Grondzik, 2009). ments or energy performance requirements). Codes essentially define the minimum that society deems acceptable. In no way is code compliance by itself (c) Case Studies likely to be adequate to meet the needs of a client. Case studies represent another emerging approach On the other hand, code compliance is indisputably to design/construction validation and evaluation. necessary. The underlying philosophy of a case study is to Codes may be written in prescriptive language capture information from a particular situation or in performance terms. A prescriptive approach and convey the information in a way that makes it mandates th