Al-Hadi University College Medical Laboratory Technique PDF

Al-HADI University College Medical laboratory technique 1st stage 1 Circulatory system: Your heart and blood vessels make up the circulatory system. The main function of the circulatory system is to provide oxygen, nutrients and hormones to muscles, tissues and organ...

Al-HADI University College Medical laboratory technique 1st stage 1 Circulatory system: Your heart and blood vessels make up the circulatory system. The main function of the circulatory system is to provide oxygen, nutrients and hormones to muscles, tissues and organs throughout. 106 Heart: is the main organ of your cardiovascular system, a network of blood vessels that pumps blood throughout your body. It also works with other body systems to control your heart rate and blood pressure. The heart contains four main sections (chambers) made of muscle and powered by electrical impulses. Your brain and nervous system direct your heart’s function. 107 108 Heart chambers Your heart is divided into four chambers. You have two chambers on the top (atrium, plural atria) and two on the bottom (ventricles), one on each side of the heart. Right atrium: Two large veins deliver oxygen-poor blood to your right atrium. The superior vena cava carries blood from your upper body. The inferior vena cava brings blood from the lower body. Then the right atrium pumps the blood to your right ventricle. 109 Right ventricle: The lower right chamber pumps the oxygen-poor blood to your lungs through the pulmonary artery. The lungs reload blood with oxygen. Left atrium: After the lungs fill blood with oxygen, the pulmonary veins carry the blood to the left atrium. This upper chamber pumps the blood to your left ventricle. Left ventricle: The left ventricle is slightly larger than the right. It pumps oxygenrich blood to the rest of your body. 110  Blood vessels Your heart pumps blood through three types of blood vessels: - Arteries: carry oxygen-rich blood from your heart to your body’s tissues. The exception is your pulmonary arteries, which go to your lungs. - Veins: carry oxygen-poor blood back to your heart. - Capillaries: are small blood vessels where your body exchanges oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor blood. 111  Respiratory System The respiratory system is the network of organs and tissues that help you breathe. It includes your airways, lungs and blood vessels. What are the parts of the respiratory system? The respiratory system has many different parts that work together to help you breathe. Each group of parts has many separate components. 112 Your airways deliver air to your lungs. Your airways are a complicated system that includes: - Mouth and nose: Openings that pull air from outside your body into your respiratory system. - Sinuses: Hollow areas between the bones in your head that help regulate the temperature and humidity of the air you inhale. - Pharynx (throat): Tube that delivers air from your mouth and nose to the trachea (windpipe). - Trachea: Passage connecting your throat and lungs. - Bronchial tubes: Tubes at the bottom of your windpipe that connect into each lung. - Lungs: Two organs that remove oxygen from the air and pass it into your blood. 113 From your lungs, your bloodstream delivers oxygen to all your organs and other tissues. 114  Urinary system The urinary system includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra. This system filters your blood, removing waste and excess water. This waste becomes urine. What are the parts of the urinary system? The kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra make up the urinary system. They all work together to filter, store and remove liquid waste from your body. 115 - Kidneys: These organs work constantly. They filter your blood and make urine, which your body eliminates. You have two kidneys, one on either side of the back of your abdomen, just below your rib cage. Each kidney is about as big as your fist. - Ureters: These two thin tubes inside your pelvis carry urine from your kidneys to your bladder. - Bladder: Your bladder holds urine until you’re ready to empty it (pee). It’s hollow, made of muscle, and shaped like a balloon. Your bladder expands as it fills up. Most bladders can hold up to 2 cups of urine. - Urethra: This tube carries urine from your bladder out of your body. It ends in an opening to the outside of your body in the penis (in men) or in front of the vagina (in women). 116 117  Muscular system The musculoskeletal system includes bones, muscles, tendons, ligaments and soft tissues. They work together to support your body’s weight and help you move. What are the parts of the musculoskeletal system? The musculoskeletal system works to help you stand, sit, walk, run and move. Adult bodies have 206 bones and more than 600 muscles, connected by ligaments, tendons and soft tissues. 118 The parts of the musculoskeletal system are: Bones: Bones of all shapes and sizes support your body, protect organs and tissues, store calcium and fat and produce blood cells. A bone’s hard outside shell surrounds a spongy center. Bones provide structure and form for your body. They work with muscles, tendons, ligaments and other connective tissues to help you move. Cartilage: A type of connective tissue, cartilage cushions bones inside your joints, along your spine and in your ribcage. Firm, rubbery cartilage protects bones from rubbing against each other. You also have cartilage in your nose, ears, pelvis and lungs. 119 Joints: Bones come together to form joints. Some joints have a large range of motion, such as the ball-and-socket shoulder joint. Other joints, like the knee, allow bones to move back and forth but not rotate. Muscles: Each muscle is made of thousands of stretchy fibers. Your muscles allow you to move, sit upright and stay still. Some muscles help you run, dance and lift. You use others to write your name, fasten a button, talk and swallow. 120 Ligaments: Made of tough collagen fibers, ligaments connect bones and help stabilize joints. Tendons: Tendons connect muscles to bones. Made of fibrous tissue and collagen, tendons are tough but not very stretchy. 121  Nervous system Your nervous system is your body’s command center. Originating from your brain, it controls your movements, thoughts and automatic responses to the world around you. It also controls other body systems and processes, such as digestion, breathing and sexual development (puberty). 122 What are the parts of the nervous system? The nervous system has two main parts. Each part contains billions of cells called neurons, or nerve cells. These special cells send and receive electrical signals through your body to tell it what to do. 123 The main parts of the nervous system are: Central nervous system (CNS): the brain and spinal cord make up your CNS. The brain uses your nerves to send messages to the rest of your body. Each nerve has a protective outer layer called myelin. Myelin insulates the nerve and helps the messages get through. 124 Peripheral nervous system: the peripheral nervous system consists of many nerves that branch out from your CNS all over your body. This system relays information from the brain and spinal cord to your organs, arms, legs, fingers and toes. The peripheral nervous system contains: 125 Somatic nervous system, which guides your voluntary movements. Autonomic nervous system, which controls the activities you do without thinking about them. 126 Post test: 1- What are the functions of: - kidney. - Gallbladder. - Ureter. - Liver. 2- Compare between Somatic nervous system and Autonomic nervous system. 127 128 129 Pre-test: 1- Define the following: - Virus. - Prions. - Bacteriophage. 130 Viruses: are infectious units with diameters of about 16 nm (circoviruses) to over 300 nm (poxviruses). The infectious virus particles, or virions, are composed of proteins and are surrounded in some species of viruses by a lipid membrane, which is referred to as an envelope; the particles contain only one kind of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA. Viruses do not reproduce by division, such as bacteria, yeasts or other cells, but they replicate in the living cells that they infect. 131 132 Viroids: are plant pathogens and consist of a circular RNA (about 200–400 nucleotides) that does not code for proteins and exhibits a complex two-dimensional structure. 133  Prion: is the infectious agent that causes transmissible spongiform encephalopathies, or prion diseases – transmissible degenerative disorders of the central nervous system. 134  Bacteriophage: are viruses that infect only bacteria. 135 136 Virus life cycle 137 138 Classification of viruses 139 Post test: 1- Enumerate the shapes of viruses. 2- Classify the viruses. 140 141 142 Pre-test: 1- What are the diseases that caused by viruses? 143  Viral diseases: are extremely widespread infections caused by viruses, a type of microorganism. There are many types of viruses that cause a wide variety of viral diseases. The most common type of viral disease is the common cold, which is caused by a viral infection of the upper respiratory tract (nose and throat). - Other common viral diseases include: Chickenpox Flu (influenza) Herpes Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV/AIDS) Human papillomavirus (HPV) Infectious mononucleosis Mumps, measles and rubella Shingles Viral gastroenteritis (stomach flu) Viral hepatitis Viral meningitis Viral pneumonia 144  Viral diseases are contagious and spread from person to person when a virus enters the body and begins to multiply. Common ways that viruses spread from person to person include: Breathing in air-borne droplets contaminated with a virus. Eating food or drinking water contaminated with a virus. Having sexual contact with a person who is infected with a sexually transmitted virus. Indirect transmission from person to person by a virus host, such as a mosquito, tick, or field mouse. Touching surfaces or body fluids contaminated with a virus. 145 Post test: 1- List the common way of virus transmission. 146 147 Pre-test: 1- List the general characteristics of monera. 148 Characteristics of Monera Monera (Monos – single) includes prokaryotes and shows the following characters: They are typically unicellular organisms (but one group is mycelial). The genetic material in these organisms is the naked circular DNA. A nuclear envelope is absent. Both, ribosomes and simple chromatophores, are the only subcellular organelles in the cytoplasm. Sap vacuoles do not occur. Instead, gas vacuole may be present. The predominant mode of nutrition is absorptive but some groups are photosynthetic (holophytic) and chemosynthetic. The organisms are non-motile or move by the beating of simple flagella or by gliding. 149  Bacteria The major characteristics of Bacteria are based on their size, shape and arrangements. 1- Size: The unit of measurement used in bacteriology is the micron (micrometer). 1 micron (μ) or micrometer (μm) – one thousandth of a millimeter 1 millimicron (mμ) or nanometer (nm) – one thousandth of a micron or one millionth of a millimeter 1 Angstrom unit (Å) – one tenth of a nanometer 150 151 2- Shape: Depending on their shape, bacteria are classified into several varieties: 1. Cocci (from kokkos meaning berry) are spherical or oval cells. 2. Bacilli (from baculus meaning rod) are rod shaped cells. 3. Vibrios are comma shaped curved rods and derive their name from their characteristics vibratory motility. 4. Spirilla are rigid spiral forms. 5. Spirochetes (from speira meaning coil and chaite meaning hair) are flexuous spiral forms. 6. Actinomycetes are branching filamentous bacteria, so called because of a fancied resemblance to the radiating rays of the sun when seen in tissue lesions (from actis meaning ray and mykes meaning fungus). 7. Mycoplasmas are bacteria that are cell wall deficient and hence do not possess a stable morphology. They occur as round or oval bodies and as interlacing filaments. 152 153  Structure of Bacteria Capsule: In a large number of bacteria, a slimy capsule is present outside the cell wall. It is composed of polysaccharides and the nitrogenous substances (amino acids) are also present in addition. This slime layer becomes thick, called, capsule. The bacteria, which form a capsule, are’ called capsulated or virulent bacteria. The capsule ‘is usually found in parasitic forms e.g., Bacillus, anthracite, Diplococcus pneumoniae, Mycobacterium tuberculosis. 154 Cell wall: All bacterial cells.are covered by a strong, rigid cell wall. Therefore, we classify them under plants. Inner to the capsule, the cell wall is present. It is made up of polysaccharides, proteins and lipids. We also find D-glutamic acid and diaminopimelic acid. 155  Plasma membrane: Each bacterial cell has a plasma membrane. It is situated just internal to the cell wall. It is a thin, elastic and also differentially or selectively permeable membrane. Cytoplasm: The cytoplasm refers to a complex and aqueous fluid or semifluid ground substance (matrix). This material consists of vitamins, salts, enzymes, carbohydrates, soluble proteins, co- enzymes, lipids, mineral and nucleic acids. The organic matter is present in the colloidal state.The cytoplasm is granular due to the presence of a large number of ribosomes. 156  Nucleoid: It has other common names like genophore, naked nucleus or incipient nucleus. There is nuclear material in these, DNA. It is double helical as well as circular. Some kind of typical protein surrounds it. However, these are not histone proteins. Plasmids: In addition to the normal DNA chromosomes, many bacteria (e.g., E.coli) have extrachromosomal genetic elements or DNA. These elements are plasmids. They are small circular double-stranded molecules. 157  Flagella: These are fine, thread-like, protoplasmic appendages. These extend through the cell wall and the slime layer of the flagellated bacterial cells. These help in bacteria to swim about in the liquid medium. Pili or Fimbriae: Besides flagella, some tiny or small hair-like outgrowths are present on the bacterial cell surface. These are pili. They comprise of pilin protein. They consequently measure about 0.5-2 mm in length and 3-5mm in diameter. 158  Growth of bacteria -Bacteria divide by binary fission and cell divides to form two daughter cells. -Bacterial growth may be considered as two levels, increase in the size of individual cells and increase in number of cells. -Growth in numbers can be studied by bacterial counts that of total and viable counts. The total count gives the number of cells either living or not and the viable count measures the number of living cells that are capable of multiplication. 159 Post test: 1- Classify bacteria according to its shape. 160 161 162 Pre-test: 1- give the differences between good and harmfull bacteria. 163 Bacterial Diseases in Humans There are various diseases that are caused by bacteria in humans. Some of the common bacterial diseases in humans are tuberculosis, pneumonia, typhoid, tetanus, etc. Bacteria that cause various diseases in humans are known as pathogenic bacteria. Bacterial diseases are diseases caused by bacteria. There are a number of bacteria found in the human body. A variety of these do not cause any infections and are known as “good bacteria”. The bacteria that cause diseases in humans are called “harmful bacteria”. There are thousands of bacteria present in the gut that are beneficial for humans. The pathogenic bacteria in humans account for less than a hundred species. 164  Bacterial Diseases in Humans Bacterial Diseases in Humans Causative Agent Pulmonary Tuberculosis Mycobacterium tuberculosis Diptheria Corynebacterium diptheriae Cholera Vibrio cholerae Leprosy Mycobacterium leprae Pertussis Bordetella pertussis Tetanus Clostridium tetani Plague Yersinia pestis Gonorrhoea Neisseria gonorrhoeae Syphilis Treponema pallidum Salmonellosis Salmonella enteritis 165 Post test: 1- Discuss the bacterial infections in humans. 166 167 168 Pre-test: 1- Enumerate the harmful effect of algae. 169  Protista Protista: are simple eukaryotic organisms that are neither plants nor animals or fungi. Protista are unicellular in nature but can also be found as a colony of cells. Most protista live in water, damp terrestrial environments or even as parasites. 170 171  The term ‘Protista’ is derived from the Greek word “protistos”, meaning “the very first“. These organisms are usually unicellular and the cell of these organisms contains a nucleus which is bound to the organelles. Some of them even possess structures that aid locomotion like flagella or cilia. Scientists speculate that protists form a link between plants, animals and fungi as these three kingdoms diverged from a common protist-like ancestor, billions of years ago. Though this “protists-like” ancestor is a hypothetical organism, we can trace some genes found in modern animals and plants to these ancient organisms. 172  Algae Algae is a term that depicts a vast variety of photosynthetic and eukaryotic life forms. They can be either unicellular or multicellular and are found in various water forms. Also, they are of different colors and sizes. Their unique characteristics include the following- The presence of chlorophyll is the most significant feature of algae. They lack roots, leaves and other definite organs of a vascular plant. Lack of cell covering around reproductive cells. They survive only in moist environments. They can be found in oceans, brackish water, rivers, lakes and ponds. They can also reproduce by both sexual and asexual means. 173 174  Some of the major harmful effects of Algae to human being are listed below: 1. Harmful to living stock: The algae are harmful to humans in several ways. Volvocales, Chlorococcales, Myxophyceae and several others occur in such a great abundance in water, that they colour the whole water either green or blue green and cause the death of fishes. The algae block the gills of the fishes and they respire during night and make the respiration of fishes difficult by complete depletion of oxygen. 175  2. Blocking of photosynthesis: The epiphytic algae which are found upon other plants and trees block photosynthesis and indirectly harm the trees and plants. 3. Parasitic algae: The well known disease ‘red rust of tea’ is not caused by any parasitic fungus but an algal form Cephaleuros virescens. This causes havoc to tea plants in Assam tea gardens. Besides, this parasitic form attacks several other plants, e.g., Mangifera, Rhododendron. Coffea, etc. The heavy losses are caused to tea and coffee by this parasitic algal form. 176 4. Mechanical injury: Sometimes the filamentous forms of algae are found in such a great abundance and net-like behaviour, that many fishes and other aquatic animals may get perish in these tangles, and direct death is inflicted upon them. 5. Contamination of water supply: Many blue-green, green and other algae contaminate the water of city reservoirs. This contamination develops a foul odour in the water and makes the water unhygienic. The algae also form some mucilaginous secretions which are the seats of harmful bacteria and other pathogens causing several human and animal diseases. 177  6. Fouling of ships: Some algae are attached to the ships, and this is called fouling of ship. The fouling retards the speed of the ship. To avoid this nuisance the ships are periodically dried up and painted with copper paint. 7. Deterioration of exposed fabrics: Commonly in rainy season, if the wet fabrics are exposed, within a few days a blue green alga appears on it and makes the cloth black spotted and weak. This was a serious problem during the Second World War. This algal growth is usually followed by bacterial infection and the fibres are completely destroyed. 178 Post test: 1- Define protista. 179 180 181 Pre-test: 1- Define the protozoa. 182  Protozoans Protozoans belong to the kingdom Protista. Protozoans are unicellular eukaryotic organisms. They are either free-living or parasites. The cells lack a cell wall like metazoans or animals. A single cell performs all the different biological functions necessary for a living organism. They are believed to be primitive relatives of animals. They are heterotrophic. The mode of nutrition is holozoic. They ingest food by phagocytosis. The osmoregulation is performed by contractile vacuoles. They reproduce mainly by asexual means, some protozoans show sexual reproduction by conjugation or gametocyte formation. 183  They are categorised into four main classes, based on different locomotory structures present in them. Sarcodina or Amoeboids: The locomotory organ is pseudopodia. They use pseudopodia to capture their food. E.g. Amoeba, Entamoeba, etc. Mastigophora or Flagellates: They have flagella for locomotion. The body is covered by a pellicle. E.g. Trypanosoma, Trichomonas, Giardia, Leishmania, etc. Ciliophora or Ciliates: They have thousands of cilia present all over the body that help in movement, and also help in taking food-laden water inside the gullet. The body is covered by a pellicle. E.g. Paramoecium, Vorticella, etc. Sporozoa or Sporozoans: They lack a specialised structure for locomotion and are endoparasitic. E.g. Plasmodium, Myxidium, Globidium, etc. 184 Post test: 1- Classify the protozoa. 185 186 187 Pre-test: 1- Give an example on: - Sarcodina. - Flagelates. 188  Sarcodina Sarcodina: A taxonomic group within Phylum Sarcomastigophora. It includes the amoebas, heliozoan, rediozoa, and foraminifera, which are characterized by their ability to move by cytoplasmic flow or by pseudopods. Just like amoeba they do not have a specific geometrical structure. 189  Amoeba Amoeba is a unicellular organism that has the ability to change its shape. They are usually found in water bodies such as ponds, lakes and slow- moving rivers. Sometimes, these unicellular organisms can also make their way inside the human body and cause various illnesses. 190 191  Flagellates A flagellate is a cell or organism with one or more whip-like appendages called flagella. The word flagellate also describes a level of organization characteristic of many prokaryotes and eukaryotes and their means of motion. Flagellates have one-to-many flagella that function in motility, attachment to a substrate, and also for feeding. 192 193  Giardia lamblia Flagellated protozoan parasite lives and reproduces in the small intestine, causing giardiasis. It is more prevalent in children than adults and it is considered the most commonly diagnosed flagellate in the human intestinal tract. Its habitat is the upper parts of the small intestine, mainly in the duodenum and jejunum. 194 195 Post test: 1- Describe the special characteristics of Amoeba and Giardia. 196 197 198 Pre-test: 1- Define Sporozoa. 199  Sporozoan Sporozoan: It is a broad group of exclusively parasitic non- motile protozoans (Sporozoa). It has a complicated life cycle that usually involves both asexual and sexual generations in different hosts and significant pathogens. Examples of sporozoan are Plasmodium and Eimeria. 200  Plasmodium -Plasmodium is a genus of protozoans which fall under the subclass Coccidia. Plasmodium usually infects the red blood cells in humans and other mammals. This genus is also known to affect birds, causing Avian Malaria. In humans, plasmodium causes malaria, however, it requires a vector. -The female anopheles mosquito fulfills the purpose of a vector, transmitting the organism to the host through its bite. 201 202 Post test: 1- Define Plasmodium. 203 204 205 References: 1- Glenco-Biology-Dynamic of Life(Megraw 2008). 2- Mader-Biology-Injury into Life (Nine Edition). 3- Prescott, Harley and Klein -Biology-(Sixth Eddition). 4- R.W. Sanders, in Encyclopedia of Inland Waters, 2009. 206