PCK-101 REVIEWER FOR MIDTERM October 2024 PDF

The term “metacognition” was coined by John Flavell. According to Flavell (1979- 1987), metacognition consist of both metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive experience or regulation. Metacognition simply put, is “thinking about thinking” or “Learning how to learn”. It refers to higher order th...

The term “metacognition” was coined by John Flavell. According to Flavell (1979- 1987), metacognition consist of both metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive experience or regulation. Metacognition simply put, is “thinking about thinking” or “Learning how to learn”. It refers to higher order thinking which involves active awareness and control over the cognitive process engaged in learning. Metacognitive knowledge refers to acquired knowledge about cognitive process, knowledge that can be used to control cognitive process. Flavell further divides metacognitive knowledge into three categories: knowledge of person variables, task variables and strategy variables. Person Variables. This includes how one views himself as a learner and thinker. Knowledge of person variable refers to knowledge about how human beings learned and process information as well as individual knowledge of one’s own learning process. For example, you may be aware that you Study more effectively if you study very early in the morning than late in the evening, and that you work better in a quite library rather than at home where there are a lot of things that make it hard for you to focus and concentrate. Task Variables. Knowledge of task variables includes knowledge about the nature of task as well as the type of processing demands that it will place upon the individual. It is about knowing what exactly needs to be accomplished, gauging is its difficultly and knowing the kind of efforts it will demand from you. For example, you may be aware that it takes more time for you to read and comprehend a book in educational philosophy than it is for you to read and comprehend a book in educational philosophy than it is for you to read and comprehend a novel. Strategy Variables. Knowledge of strategy variable involves awareness of the 1 strategy you are using to learn a topic and evaluating whether this think of various strategies and try out one to see if it will help you learn better. Terms like meta-attention and meta-memory are related to strategy variable. Meta-attention is the awareness of specific strategies so that you can keep your attention focused on the topic or task at hand. Meta-memory is your awareness of memory strategies that work best for you. Metacognition involves knowledge and skills which you and your students can learn and master. Here are some examples of teaching strategies now in your role as a student. It will surely be rewarding learning experience for you. 1. Have students monitor their own learning and thinking.( Example: have a student monitor a peer’s learning/thinking/behaving in dyad) 2. Teaching students study or learning strategies. TQLR – This can be taught to younger students (primary grades). it is a metacognitive strategy before listening to a story or presentation. T is for Tune in. It is first important for the learner himself to be aware that he is paying attention, and that he is ready to learn. Q is for Question. The learner is given question or he thinks of question about what he will soon learn. L is for Listening. The learner then intentionally exerts effort to listen. He becomes aware if he is momentarily detracted and goes back to listen again. R is for Remember. The learner uses ways or strategies to remember what was learned. PQ4R – This is usually for older students in the intermediate levels and onwards. This strategy is used to study a unit chapter. P-Preview. Scan the whole chapter before delving on each paragraph. Check out the objectives. Look for outlines or advance organizer that will give you an idea about the important topics and idea s in the chapter. Read the summary of the chapter first. (But please don’t stop at the summary alone. No. No. No. This is not good idea at all. Read the whole chapter!) 2  Q-Question. Read the guide questions provide or think of your own question about the topic. R-Read. Check out subheadings as you read. Pay attention on words that are printed in bold or italicized. Find out the meaning of words that are not cleared to you. Use a marker or colored pencil to highlight important words or phrases. (Do not highlight the whole paragraph!) R-Recite. Work on answering the question you had earlier. R-Review. Pinpoint topics you may need to go back and read in order to understand better. R-Reflect. Think about what you read. Is everything clear to you? What are the main points you learned? How is this relevant or useful to you? 3. Have students make prediction about information to be presented next based on what they have read. 4. Have students relate ideas to existing knowledge structures. (It is important to have relevant knowledge structures well learned). 5. Have students developed questions; ask question themselves, about what’s going on around them (have you asked a good question today?) 6. Help students to know when to ask for help. (He/She must be able to self-monitor; require students to show how they have attempted to deal with the problem of their own.) 7. Show students how to transfer knowledge, attitudes, values, skills to other situations or tasks. Table 1: The Learner-Centered Psychological Principles COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of FACTORS optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing for personal Principle 1: Nature of the learning process. choice and control. The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional process of Principle 9: Effects of motivation on effort Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort and guided 3 constructing meaning from information and practice. Without learners' motivation to learn, experience. the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without coercion. Principle 2: Goals of the learning process. The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representations of DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIAL knowledge. FACTORS Principle 3: Construction of knowledge. Principle 10: Developmental influence on The successful learner can link new learning information with existing knowledge in As individuals develop, they encounter meaningful ways. different opportunities and experience different constraints for learning. Learning is Principle 4: Strategic thinking most effective when differential development The successful learner can create and use a within and across physical, intellectual, repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies emotional, and social domains is taken into to achieve complex learning goals. account. Principle 5: Thinking about thinking Principle 11: Social influences on learning Higher order strategies for selecting and Learning is influenced by social interactions, monitoring mental operations facilitate interpersonal relations, and communication creative and critical thinking. with others. Principle 6: Context of learning INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES FACTORS Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology, and Principle 12: Individual differences in learning instructional practices. Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that are a function MOTIVATIONAL AND AFFECTIVE of prior experience and heredity. FACTORS Principle 13: Learning and diversity Principle 7: Motivational and emotional Learning is most effective when differences in influences on learning learners' linguistic, cultural, and social What and how much is learned is influenced backgrounds are taken into account. by the learner's motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the individual's Principle 14: Standards and assessment emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, Setting appropriately high and challenging and habits of thinking. standards and assessing the learner and learning progress-including diagnostic, Principle 8: Intrinsic motivation to learn process, and outcome assessment-are integral The learner's creativity, higher order thinking, parts of the learning process. and natural curiosity all contribute to motivation to learn. 4  Summarized from the APA Work Group of the Board of Educational Affairs (1997, November). Learner-centered psychological principles: Guidelines for school reform and redesign. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Learner diversity refers to both the group and individual differences in our students, it exists in every classroom and it can have a powerful effect on learning. These learners are influence by several factors or sources which are language, gender, culture and socioeconomic status. There is only one unequivocal law of human behavior—the law of individual differences. People are more different than they are alike, and there is probably no environment that elicits individual differences sooner in life than formal education. Individual differences in academically related characteristics can make for success or failure in one of life's most important pursuits—obtaining an education. As a result, a primary focus of applied educational psychologists has been the identification of methods that allow each individual to achieve their maximum educational performance. Unfortunately, after a century of applied research on the identification of student characteristics and learning environments, “a coherent and parsimonious theory of performance is still lacking” (Corno, Cronbach, Kupermintz, Lohman, Mandinach, Porteus & Talbert, 2002). In education, teachers strive to arrange conditions that elicit optimal performance in all students. However, the optimal learning conditions and techniques for one student may not facilitate the best performance in another student. According to Corno et al. (2002), each individual “has worked out over many years how to respond in her own way to symbol systems and social cues. Each has aptitude for particular situations. Recognizing specifically the qualities 5 each person brings to a situation, then adjusting the situation to improve the fit—these are major tasks of those who work with people” (p. 1). Fortunately, “theoretical and technical advances in research on learning and effective schooling, particularly those which have occurred during the past decade, have greatly influenced the nature and type of information on individual differences that has been considered instructional planning and educational placement of learners with special needs” (Wang, 1987, p. 3) Factors That Bring about Learners Diversity 1. Socio-economic status 2. Thinking/learning style 3. Exceptionalities In all learning environments, individual interact with others who are in some way different from them and that. what we called "diversity". This diversity also comes from other factors like socio-economic status, thinking/learning style and exceptionalities. In socio-economic status it depends on how individual differ in lifestyle from that of the middle income or lower income group. It also depend on a combination of variables including occupation, education, income, wealth and place of residence. Socioeconomic status is the measure of the influence that the social environment has on individual, families, communities, and schools. In many ways, socioeconomic status is related to the concept of social class. The next factor is thinking/learning style, which involves their different strategies and techniques on how they learn easily and effectively. There are some learners learn by seeing and looking and others are by hearing and listening. On the other hand, there are individual learn better by touching and doing. Wherein they actually perform what they want to know and learn, that's why every learner has their own styles in learning. And the last is the exceptionalities, in these factor learners with 6 exceptionalities as persons who are different in some way from the "normal" or "average". Exceptional learners include those with special needs related to cognitive abilities, behavior, emotional disturbances and giftedness. And the learners require a lot of understanding and patience as well as special education and related services to reach their full of development. How Student Diversity Enriches the Learning Environment A teacher may be " challenged " to handle a class with so diverse. Why? Because there are students having different language, abilities, cultural background, different attitude and behaviors. A wise teacher see a diversity in a classroom in a respect way and in a god terms. For other teacher, having a diversity in a classroom is an exciting part because not only the students are learned also the instructors as well. But a word " hassle" are upset at the mind of the teacher who are difficult to adapt the diversity happened in a classroom. 1. Student's Self Awareness Is Enhance By Diversity Exposing students to others with diverse background may enhance their self awareness. Because they see the differences between themselves and other, and they are given points to sharpen an assessment to their own attitudes,values, and behaviors. 2. Student Diversity Contributes To Cognitive Development It is the opportunity to gain access to the perspective peers and to other student. And not only the teacher can gain more cognitive knowledge but also other student can gain more knowledge and information with diverse culture of other students. 3. Student Diversity Prepares Learners For Their Role As Responsible Members Of Society Suzane Mores argued : " the classroom can provide more than just theory given by the teacher in a lecture. Which students diversity, the classroom becomes a public place where 7 community can be practiced. 4. Student Diversity Can Promote Harmony When student diversity is integrated into the classroom teaching and learning process. It can become a vehicle for promoting harmonious race relationship. VARK Learning Styles One of the most popular learning styles inventories used in schools is the VARK system (Cuevas, 2015). Students answer 25 multiple-choice questions that range from how they like their teachers to teach (discussions and guest speakers, textbooks and handouts, field trips and labs, or charts and diagrams) to how they would give directions to a neighbor’s house (draw a map, write out directions, say them aloud, or walk with the person) (VARK Learn Limited, 2021). Based on their responses, the system classifies them as Visual, Auditory, Read-write, and/or Kinesthetic learners and recommends specific learning strategies. If only it were that simple. While this brief survey may provide some insights for teachers, we must be wary of overestimating the value of the results. By placing students in categories that reflect “preferred learning styles,” we run the risk of oversimplifying the complex nature of teaching and learning to the detriment of our students. AUDITORY VISUAL TACTILE Auditory Learners receive Visual Learners receive Tactile & Kinesthetic information best through information best when visual Learners receive information lectures and audio-based aids are used (slides, films, best when they are allowed instruction. whiteboards, etc.). They to use their hands and sense would rather read to learn of touch to learn new than listen to learn. information and apply new skills. What is a THINKING STYLE? A thinking style is how you process information best. Linear Thinkers (or "sequential thinkers") prefer a structured approach LINEAR THINKER when processing information. If instructions use a sequenced format (i.e. 8  (Left-Brain Dominant) Step A, Step B, Step C, etc.) strong linear thinkers will feel more comfortable starting "Step B" only after "Step A" has been completed. Overall, linear thinkers like predictability and consistency. Mathematics & Accounting are linear-oriented subjects. Global Thinkers (or "strategic thinkers") are more comfortable with new information if they can put it into context with the big picture. They also tend to be impatient with linear subjects and step-by-step instructions - they GLOBAL THINKER prefer access to all the information (early on) so they can (Right-Brain Dominant) relate it to their overall goals. Philosophy & Literature are global-oriented subjects. Theory of Multiple Intelligences This theory suggests that traditional psychometric views of intelligence are too limited. Gardner first outlined his theory in his 1983 book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, where he suggested that all people have different kinds of "intelligences." Gardner proposed that there are eight intelligences and has suggested the possible addition of a ninth known as "existentialist intelligence." 1 In order to capture the full range of abilities and talents that people possess, Gardner theorizes that people do not have just an intellectual capacity, but have many kinds of intelligence, including musical, interpersonal, spatial-visual, and linguistic intelligences. While a person might be particularly strong in a specific area, such as musical intelligence, he or she most likely possesses a range of abilities. For example, an individual might be strong in verbal, musical, and naturalistic intelligence. Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory Sigmund Freud (1856 to 1939) was the founding father of psychoanalysis, a method for 9 treating mental illness and also a theory which explains human behavior. Freud believed that events in our childhood have a great influence on our adult lives, shaping our personality. For example, anxiety originating from traumatic experiences in a person's past is hidden from consciousness, and may cause problems during adulthood (in the form of neuroses). The Unconscious Mind Freud (1900, 1905) developed a topographical model of the mind, whereby he described the features of the mind’s structure and function. Freud used the analogy of an iceberg to describe the three levels of the mind. Freud (1923) later developed a more structural model of the mind comprising the entities id, ego, and superego (what Freud called “the psychic apparatus”). These are not physical areas within the brain, but rather hypothetical conceptualizations of important mental functions. Freud assumed the id operated at an unconscious level according to the pleasure principle (gratification from satisfying basic instincts). The id comprises two kinds of biological instincts (or drives) which Freud called Eros and Thanatos. The ego develops from the id during infancy. The ego's goal is to satisfy the demands of the id in a safe a socially acceptable way. In contrast to the id, the ego follows the reality principle as it operates in both the conscious and unconscious mind. The superego develops during early childhood (when the child identifies with the same sex parent) and is responsible for ensuring moral standards are followed. The superego operates on the morality principle and motivates us to behave in a socially responsible and acceptable manner. Psychosexual Stages 10 Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development The Swiss cognitive theorist Jean Piaget is one of the most influential figures in the study of child development. He developed his cognitive-developmental theory based on the idea that children actively construct knowledge as they explore and manipulate the world around them. Piaget was interested in the development of “thinking” and how it relates to development throughout childhood. His theory of four stages of cognitive development, first presented in the mid-20th century, is one of the most famous and widely-accepted theories in child cognitive development to this day. 11  The Stages Through his observations of his children, Piaget developed a stage theory of intellectual development that included four distinct stages: Sensorimotor Stage The sensorimotor stage occurs from birth to age 2. It is characterized by the idea that infants “think” by manipulating the world around them. This is done by using all five senses: seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, and smelling. Children figure out ways to elicit responses by “doing”, such as pulling a lever on a music box to hear a sound, placing a block in a bucket and 12 pulling it back out, or throwing an object to see what happens. Between 5 and 8 months old, the child develops object permanence, which is the understanding that even if something is out of sight, it still exists (Bogartz, Shinskey, & Schilling, 2000). By the end of this stage, children are able to engage in what Piaget termed deferred 7 imitation. This involves the ability to reproduce or repeat a previously-witnessed action later on; rather than copying it right away, the child is able to produce a mental representation of it and repeat the behavior later on. By 24 months, infants are able to imitate behaviors after a delay of up to three months. Preoperational Stage The preoperational stage occurs from age 2 to age 7. During this stage, children can use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play. A child’s arms might become airplane wings as she zooms around the room, or a child with a stick might become a brave knight with a sword. Language development and make- believe play begin during this stage. Logical thinking is still not present, so children cannot rationalize or understand more complex ideas. Children at this stage are very egocentric, meaning they focus on themselves and how actions will impact them, rather than others. They are not able to take on the perspective of others, and they think that everyone sees, thinks, and feels just like they do. Concrete Operational Stage The concrete operational stage occurs from age 7 to age 11. It is characterized by the idea that children’s reasoning becomes focused and logical. Children demonstrate a logical understanding of conservation principles, the ability to recognize that key properties of a substance do not change even as their physical appearance may be altered. For example, a child 13 who understands the principles of conservation will recognize that identical quantities of liquid will remain the same despite the size of the container in which they are poured. Children who do not yet grasp conservation and logical thinking will believe that the taller or larger glass must contain more liquid. Formal Operational The formal operational stage occurs from age 11 to adulthood. It is characterized by the idea that children develop the ability to think in abstract ways. This enables children to engage in the problem-solving method of developing a hypothesis and reasoning their way to plausible solutions. Children can think of abstract concepts and have the ability to combine various ideas to create new ones. By the end of this stage, children have developed logical and systematic thinking, are capable of deductive reasoning, and can create hypothetical ideas to explain various concepts. Basic Cognitive Concepts a. Schema. It is an individual’s way to understand or create meaning about a thing or experience. It is like the mind has a filing cabinet and each drawer has folders that contains files. In Piaget's view, a schema includes both a category of knowledge and the process of obtaining that knowledge.3 As experiences happen, this new information is used to modify, add to, or change previously existing schemas. b. Assimilation. This is the process of fitting a new experience into an existing or previously created cognitive structure or schema. The process is somewhat subjective because we tend to modify experiences and information slightly to fit in with our preexisting beliefs. c. Accommodation. This is the process of creating a new schema. Another part of adaptation involves changing or altering our existing schemas in light of new 14  information, a process known as accommodation. Accommodation involves modifying existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new information or new experiences. 5 New schemas may also be developed during this process. d. Equilibration. This is achieving proper balance between assimilation and accommodation. Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation and accommodation, which is achieved through a mechanism Piaget called equilibration. As children progress through the stages of cognitive development, it is important to maintain a balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing behavior to account for new knowledge (accommodation). Equilibration helps explain how children can move from one stage of thought to the next. Cognitive development involves a continuous effort to adapt to the environment in terms of assimilation and accommodation. In this sense, Piaget’s theory is similar in nature to other constructivist perspective of learning. Erikson’s Psycho-Social Theory of Development Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development gives us a way to view the development of a person through an entire lifespan. Each stage in Erikson's theory builds on the preceding stages and paves the way for following periods of development. In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point in development. 15 16 Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development Level 1 - Preconventional morality Preconventional morality is the first stage of moral development, and lasts until approximately age 9. At the preconventional level children don’t have a personal code of morality, and instead moral decisions are shaped by the standards of adults and the consequences of following or breaking their rules. For example, if an action leads to punishment is must be bad, and if it leads to a reward is must be good. Authority is outside the individual and children often make moral decisions based on the physical consequences of actions. Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The child/individual is good in order to avoid being punished. If a person is punished, they must have done wrong. Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this stage, children recognize that there is not just one right view that is handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have different viewpoints Level 2 - Conventional morality Conventional morality is the second stage of moral development, and is characterized by an acceptance of social rules concerning right and wrong. At the conventional level (most adolescents and adults), we begin to internalize the moral standards of valued adult role models. Authority is internalized but not questioned, and reasoning is based on the norms of the group to 17 which the person belongs. A social system that stresses the responsibilities of relationships as well as social order is seen as desirable and must, therefore, influence our view of what is right and wrong. Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships. The child/individual is good in order to be seen as being a good person by others Therefore, answers relate to the approval of others. Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order. The child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of society, so judgments concern obeying the rules in order to uphold the law and to avoid guilt. Level 3 - Postconventional morality Postconventional morality is the third stage of moral development, and is characterized by an individuals’ understanding of universal ethical principles. These are abstract and ill- defined, but might include: the preservation of life at all costs, and the importance of human dignity. Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral reasoning is based on individual rights and justice. According to Kohlberg this level of moral reasoning is as far as most people get. Only 10-15% are capable of the kind of abstract thinking necessary for stage 5 or 6 (post- conventional morality). That is to say, most people take their moral views from those around them and only a minority think through ethical principles for themselves. Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. The child/individual becomes aware that while rules/laws might exist for the good of the greatest number, there are times when they will work against the interest of particular individuals. Stage 6. Universal Principles. People at this stage have developed their own set of moral guidelines which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply to everyone. Vygotsky – Sociocultural Theory 18  Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Russian teacher who is considered a pioneer in learning in social contexts. As a psychologist, he was also the first to examine how our social interactions influence our cognitive growth. He was convinced that learning occurred through interactions with others in our communities: peers, adults, teachers, and other mentors. Vygotsky sought to understand how people learn in a social environment and created a unique theory on social learning. He determined that teachers have the ability to control many factors in an educational setting, including tasks, behaviors, and responses. As a result, he encouraged more interactive activities to promote cognitive growth, such as productive discussions, constructive feedback, and collaboration with others. Vygotsky also stated that culture was a primary determinant of knowledge acquisition. He argued that children learn from the beliefs and attitudes modeled by their culture. Vygotsky's sociocultural theory views human development as a socially mediated process in which children acquire their cultural values, beliefs, and problem-solving strategies through collaborative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society. Vygotsky's theory is comprised of concepts such as culture-specific tools, private speech, and the Zone of Proximal Development. Effects of Culture: - Tools of intellectual adaptation Vygotsky claimed that infants are born with the basic abilities for intellectual development called 'elementary mental functions' (Piaget focuses on motor reflexes and sensory abilities). Elementary mental functions include – attention, sensation, perception and memory. Eventually, through interaction within the sociocultural environment, these are developed 19 into more sophisticated and effective mental processes which Vygotsky refers to as 'higher mental functions.' Each culture provides its children tools of intellectual adaptation that allow them to use the basic mental functions more effectively/adaptively. Tools of intellectual adaptation is Vygotsky’s term for methods of thinking and problem- solving strategies that children internalize through social interactions with the more knowledgeable members of society. Vygotsky, therefore, sees cognitive functions, even those carried out alone, as affected by the beliefs, values, and tools of intellectual adaptation of the culture in which a person develops and therefore socio-culturally determined. The tools of intellectual adaptation, therefore, vary from culture to culture. Social Influences on Cognitive Development Like Piaget, Vygotsky believes that young children are curious and actively involved in their own learning and the discovery and development of new understandings/schema. However, Vygotsky placed more emphasis on social contributions to the process of development, whereas Piaget emphasized self-initiated discovery. According to Vygotsky (1978), much important learning by the child occurs through social interaction with a skillful tutor. The tutor may model behaviors and/or provide verbal instructions for the child. Vygotsky refers to this as cooperative or collaborative dialogue. The child seeks to understand the actions or instructions provided by the tutor (often the parent or teacher) then internalizes the information, using it to guide or regulate their own performance. Shaffer (1996) gives the example of a young girl who is given her first jigsaw. Alone, she performs poorly in attempting to solve the puzzle. The father then sits with her and describes or demonstrates some basic strategies, such as finding all the corner/edge pieces and provides a couple of pieces for the child to put together herself and offers encouragement when she does so. As the child becomes more competent, the father allows the child to work more independently. According to Vygotsky, this type of social interaction involving cooperative or 20 collaborative dialogue promotes cognitive development. Zone of Proximal Development The concept of the More Knowledgeable Other is integrally related to the second important principle of Vygotsky's work, the Zone of Proximal Development. This is an important concept that relates to the difference between what a child can achieve independently and what a child can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner. For example, the child could not solve the jigsaw puzzle (in the example above) by itself and would have taken a long time to do so (if at all), but was able to solve it following interaction with the father, and has developed competence at this skill that will be applied to future jigsaws. Vygotsky (1978) sees the Zone of Proximal Development as the area where the most sensitive instruction or guidance should be given - allowing the child to develop skills they will then use on their own - developing higher mental functions. Vygotsky also views interaction with peers as an effective way of developing skills and strategies. He suggests that teachers use cooperative learning exercises where less competent children develop with help from more skillful peers - within the zone of proximal development. 21  When a child attempts to perform a skill alone, she may not be immediately proficient to it. So, alone she may perform at a certain level of competency. However, with the guidance of More Knowledgeable Other (MKO), competent adult or more advanced peer, the child can perform at a higher level of competency. The support or assistance that lets the child accomplish a task he cannot accomplish independently is called, scaffolding. Scaffolding is not about doing the task for the child while he watches. It is not about doing shortcuts for the child. It should involve the judicious assistance given by the adult or peer so that the child can move from the zone of actual to the zone of proximal development. 22 Four levels of MKO scaffolds process: 1. I do, you watch. 2. I do, you help. 3. You do, I help. 4. You do, I watch. Vygotsky and Language Vygotsky believed that language develops from social interactions, for communication purposes. Vygotsky viewed language as man’s greatest tool, a means for communicating with the outside world. According to Vygotsky (1962) language plays two critical roles in cognitive development: 1. It is the main means by which adults transmit information to children. 2. Language itself becomes a very powerful tool of intellectual adaptation. Vygotsky (1987) differentiates between three forms of language: social speech which is external communication used to talk to others (typical from the age of two); private speech (typical from the age of three) which is directed to the self and serves an intellectual function; and finally private speech goes underground, diminishing in audibility as it takes on a self- regulating function and is transformed into silent inner speech (typical from the age of seven). For Vygotsky, thought and language are initially separate systems from the beginning of life, merging at around three years of age. At this point speech and thought become interdependent: thought becomes verbal, speech becomes representational. When this happens, children's monologues internalized to become inner speech. The internalization of language is important as it drives cognitive development. 'Inner speech is not the interior aspect of external speech - it is a function in itself. It still remains speech, i.e., thought connected with words. But while in external speech thought 23 is embodied in words, in inner speech words dies as they bring forth thought. Inner speech is to a large extent thinking in pure meanings.' 1: Vygotsky places more emphasis on culture affecting cognitive development. This contradicts Piaget's view of universal stages and content of development (Vygotsky does not refer to stages in the way that Piaget does). Hence Vygotsky assumes cognitive development varies across cultures, whereas Piaget states cognitive development is mostly universal across cultures. 2: Vygotsky places considerably more emphasis on social factors contributing to cognitive development. Vygotsky states the importance of cultural and social context for learning. Cognitive development stems from social interactions from guided learning within the zone of proximal development as children and their partner's co-construct knowledge. In contrast, Piaget maintains that cognitive development stems largely from independent explorations in which children construct knowledge of their own. For Vygotsky, the environment in which children grow up will influence how they think and what they think about. 3: Vygotsky places more (and different) emphasis on the role of language in cognitive development. According to Piaget, language depends on thought for its development (i.e., thought comes before language). For Vygotsky, thought and language are initially separate systems from the beginning of life, merging at around three years of age, producing verbal thought (inner speech). For Vygotsky, cognitive development results from an internalization of language. 4: According to Vygotsky adults are an important source of cognitive development. Adults transmit their culture's tools of intellectual adaptation that children internalize. In contrast, Piaget emphasizes the importance of peers, as peer interaction promotes social perspective taking. 24 Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory American psychologist, Urie Bronfenbrenner, formulated the Ecological Systems Theory to explain how the inherent qualities of children and their environments interact to influence how they grow and develop. The Bronfenbrenner theory emphasizes the importance of studying children in multiple environments, also known as ecological systems, in the attempt to understand their development. According to Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory, children typically find themselves enmeshed in various ecosystems, from the most intimate home ecological system to the larger school system, and then to the most expansive system which includes society and culture. Each of these ecological systems inevitably interact with and influence each other in all aspects of the children’s lives. The Microsystem The microsystem is the first level of Bronfenbrenner's theory, and are the things that have direct contact with the child in their immediate environment, such as parents, siblings, teachers and school peers. Interactions within the microsystem typically involve personal relationships with family members, classmates, teachers and caregivers. How these groups or individuals interact with the children will affect how they grow. If a child has a strong nurturing relationship with their parents, this is said to have a positive effect on the child. Whereas, distant and unaffectionate parents will have a negative effect on the child. 25 The Mesosystem The mesosystem encompasses the interactions between the child’s microsystems, such as the interactions between the child’s parents and teachers, or between school peers and siblings. The mesosystem is where a person's individual microsystems do not function independently, but are interconnected and assert influence upon one another. For instance, if a child’s parents communicate with the child’s teachers, this interaction may influence the child’s development. Essentially, a mesosystem is a system of microsystems. According to the ecological systems theory, if the child’s parents and teachers get along and have a good relationship, this should have positive effects on the child’s development, compared to negative effects on development if the teachers and parents do not get along. 26 The Exosystem The exosystem pertains to the linkages that may exist between two or more settings, one of which may not contain the developing children but affect them indirectly nonetheless. Based on the findings of Bronfenbrenner, people and places that children may not 27 directly interact with may still have an impact on their lives. Such places and people may include the parents’ workplaces, extended family members, and the neighborhood the children live in. The Macrosystem The macrosystem is a component of Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory that focuses on how cultural elements affect a child's development, such as socioeconomic status, wealth, poverty, and ethnicity. Thus, culture that individuals are immersed within may influence their beliefs and perceptions about events that transpire in life. The macrosystem differs from the previous ecosystems as is does not refer to the specific environments of one developing child, but the already established society and culture which the child is developing in. This can also include the socioeconomic status, ethnicity, geographic location and ideologies of the culture. For example, children in war-torn areas will experience a different kind of development than children in peaceful environments. The Chronosystem The fifth and final level of Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory is known as the chronosystem. This system consists of all of the environmental changes that occur over the lifetime which influence development, including major life transitions, and historical events. These can include normal life transitions such as starting school but can also include non- normative life transitions such as parents getting a divorce or having to move to a new house. Classroom Application The Ecological Systems Theory has been used to link psychological and educational theory to early educational curriculums and practice. At the center of the theory is the developing child, and all that occurs within and between the five ecological systems are done so to benefit the child in the classroom. 28  To strengthen the development between the ecological systems in educational practice according to the theory, teachers and parents should keep good communication with each other and work together to benefit the child. Teachers should also be understanding of the situations their student’s families may be experiencing, including social and economic factors that are part of the various systems. According to the theory, if parents and teachers have a good relationship, this should shape the child’s development in a positive way. Likewise, the child must also be active in their learning, engaged both academically and socially. They must work as a team with their peers and get involved in meaningful learning experiences to enable positive development (Evans, 2012). Behaviorism The term behaviorism refers to the school of psychology founded by John B. Watson based on the belief that behaviors can be measured, trained, and changed. Behaviorism was established with the publication of Watson's classic paper "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It" (1913). Behaviorism, also known as behavioral psychology, is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment. Behaviorists believe that our responses to environmental stimuli shape our behaviors. According to this school of thought, behavior can be studied in a systematic and observable manner with no consideration of internal mental states. It suggests that only observable behaviors should be studied, since internal states such as cognitions, emotions, and moods are too subjective. Major Types of Conditioning 1. Classical conditioning is a technique used in behavioral training in which a naturally occurring stimulus is paired with a response. Next, a previously neutral stimulus is paired with the naturally occurring stimulus. Eventually, the previously neutral stimulus comes to evoke the response without the presence of the naturally occurring stimulus. The two elements are then known as the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response. 2. Operant conditioning Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. 29 Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior. Proponents of the Behaviorism Theory 1. Ivan Pavlov 2. B. F. Skinner 3. Edward Thorndike 4. John B. Watson Foundations of Behaviorism in Education In B. F. Skinner’s Behaviorism, the major theories as pertaining to education are reinforcement, verbal behavior theories, and social development theories. Though all aspects of Behaviorist theory have influenced the world of education, Behaviorist reinforcement theory still impacts education widely today especially when looking at educational technology. Skinner (1958) has found that “behavior is shown to be shaped and maintained by its ‘reinforcing’ consequences rather than elicited as conditioned or unconditioned response to stimuli” (972). This idea has been molded into many educational practices, and the idea of reinforcement has had many implications for educational technology specifically, which will be examined later. Important Events in Behaviorism 1900 - Ivan Pavlov began studying the salivary response and other reflexes. 1913 - John Watson's Psychology as a Behaviorist Views It was published. The article outlined the many of the main points of behaviorism. 1920 - Watson and assistant Rosalie Rayner conducted the famous "Little Albert" experiment. 1943 - Clark Hull's Principles of Behavior was published. 1948 - B.F. Skinner published Walden II in which he described a utopian society founded upon behaviorist principles. 1959 - Noam Chomsky published his criticism of Skinner's behaviorism, "Review of Verbal Behavior." 1971 - B.F. Skinner published his book Beyond Freedom and Dignity, in which he argued that free will is an illusion. Ivan Pavlov (Classical Conditioning) 30  Ivan Pavlov was a Russian physiologist which is a bit ironic since he was a major influence in the field of psychology specifically in Behaviorism. Pavlov discovered the concept of classical conditioning while studying the digestion in dogs. By doing so he noticed how the dogs began to salivate as soon as one of his assistants entered the room. Throughout his research Pavlov and his assistants would present food to the dogs and measured the saliva that was produced as a result. Pavlov noted salivation was a reflexive process that occurs automatically under stimulus not under consciousness. Meaning dogs don’t learn to salivate whenever they see food, it’s a stimulus- response connection that they don’t need to learn, an unconditioned reflex. However, when he noticed that his dogs would begin to salivate whenever he entered the room, even when he was not bringing them food, that is when he realized the salivary response was not due to an automatic physiological process. Pavlov discovered that the salivary response was a learned response. Anything the dogs learned to associate with food triggered the same response. For example, the assistants whom the animals learned usually walked in with food they were the neutral stimulus. The salivary response to the presentation of food is an unconditioned reflex, salivating to the expectation of food is a conditioned reflex. As a result, learning changed the behavior of the animals. After making that scientific discovery Pavlov dedicated himself to study that type of learning. In a similar experiment Pavlov used a bell as a neutral stimulus and food as the unconditioned stimulus once more. Every time he fed the dogs he rang a bell. After doing this same procedure continuously when he rang the bell with no food present the dogs still salivated. Similar to the last experiment the dogs learned to associate the bell ringing to getting fed, leading them to believe every time the bell rings they will get fed. The bell had now become a conditioned stimulus to the dogs. A new behavior was learned, a conditional response. Ivan Pavlov may not have set out to change the face of psychology, but his work had a profound and lasting influence on the science of the mind and behavior. His discovery of classical conditioning helped establish the school of thought known as behaviorism Pavlov's research is regarded as the first to explore the theory of classical conditioning: that stimuli cause responses and that the brain can associate stimuli together to learn new responses. 31 How do you use Pavlov theory in the classroom? Pavlov recognized that a neutral stimulus associates with a reflex response through conditioning. For example, when a teacher claps out a pattern, students repeat the pattern while focusing their attention to the teacher. Edward Thorndike Edward Thorndike (1898) is famous in psychology for his work on learning theory that lead to the development of operant conditioning within Behaviorism. Whereas classical conditioning depends on developing associations between events, operant conditioning involves learning from the consequences of our behavior. Thorndike's law of effect states that behaviors followed by a reward or reinforcement are more likely in the future, whereas behaviors followed by a punishment are less likely in the future. This basic principle is the foundation for many ideas and techniques in the behavioral perspective within educational psychology. Edward Thorndike came up with the concept of instrumental conditioning and, like Pavlov, reached his main conclusions using data from animal-based experimentation. 32 Such experiments included placing hungry cats in an enclosed container, which Thorndike referred to as a puzzle box, from which they had to escape in order to reach food. The first time a cat was placed in this situation it escaped only after several failed attempts and a single lucky successful guess (such as pushing the right button). However, the time it took to escape decreased each time a cat was returned to the box. This meant, first of all, that the cats remembered which behavior was necessary to escape and get the reward of food. If they had not, it would take approximately the same time for them to refigure it out and there would not be the trend of a continually faster escape. Secondly, they were clearly able to recognize their current situation (being placed in the puzzle box) was identical to the last time they were placed inside of the puzzle box, and therefore that the same successful behavior used before would achieve the same end result the next time around: freedom and a feast. As the cats continued to be placed in the puzzle box, they became more adept at escaping the box over time. Public Domain 33 Using his data, Thorndike developed two main laws concerning conditioning. The first was the law of exercise, stating simply that the repetition of a response strengthens it. Each time a cat was placed in the puzzle box, it exhibited a stronger inclination to perform the behaviors required, exiting the box with increased proficiency and in a shorter timespan. The second law, the law of effect, established that behaviors were either strengthened or weakened, depending on whether they were rewarded or punished. Each time the successful behavior was repeated, it was done more quickly because the cat no longer wasted time performing other behaviors that had proven unsuccessful and kept the animal imprisoned. The third is law of readiness - a series of responses can be chained together to satisfy some goal. John Broadus Watson John Broadus Watson, who lived from 1879 to 1958, was an American psychologist who is considered the father of the psychological school of behaviorism. He was raised in South Carolina by a mother with strict religious standards and an alcoholic father who abandoned John and his mother when John was only 13 years old. Watson struggled academically and was arrested twice during high school. Yet despite these troubles and his own admission that he was a poor student, Watson entered Furman College at age 16 and emerged with a Master's degree five years later. He eventually completed a doctorate in Psychology at the University of Chicago in 1903 and went on to teach at John Hopkins University in 1908. The Roots of Behaviorism By the time Watson began teaching at Johns Hopkins, the official discipline of psychology was barely 30 years old, having started in Europe in 1879. Watson was one of the early American psychologists to break the Freudian notions that our unconscious mind was behind most of our behavior. These ideas were quickly gaining acceptance among psychologists in Europe and later in the United States. Watson made his most memorable declaration against Freud's theory at a lecture he delivered in 1913 at Columbia University titled 'Psychology as the 34 Behaviorist Views It.' This lecture established Watson as a pioneer of a new school of thought that would later become known as behaviorism. Behaviorism, according to Watson, was the science of observable behavior. Only behavior that could be observed, recorded and measured was of any real value for the study of humans or animals. Watson's thinking was significantly influenced by the earlier classical conditioning experiments of Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov and his now infamous dogs. Watson's behaviorism rejected the concept of the unconscious and the internal mental state of a person because it was not observable and was subject to the psychologist's subjective interpretation. For example, Freud would ask his patients to tell him their dreams. He would then interpret the dreams and analyze what these dreams were indicating in the person's life. Watson found this emphasis on introspection and subjective interpretation to be very unscientific and unhelpful in understanding behavior. The Core of Watson's Work Watson is best known for taking his theory of behaviorism and applying it to child development. He believed strongly that a child's environment is the factor that shapes behaviors over their genetic makeup or natural temperament. Watson is famous for saying that he could take a 'dozen healthy infants... and train any one of them to become any type of specialist he might select - doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief.' In other words, he believed that you can expose the child to certain environmental forces and, over time, condition that child to become any type of person you want. As you might imagine, this was radical thinking and a type of behavioral control that many people were not comfortable with at that time. Watson's 'manifesto' stated a number of underlying assumptions regarding methodology and behavioral analysis, made it clear behaviorism focuses only on observable stimulus-response behaviors, and considers that all behaviors are learned through events and situations within the environment. Skinner’s Behaviourism B.F. Skinner (1904–90) was a leading American psychologist, Harvard professor and proponent of the behaviorist theory of learning in which learning is a process of ‘conditioning’ in an environment of stimulus, reward and punishment. Skinner explains the difference between informal learning, which occurs naturally, and formal education, which depends on the teacher creating optimal patterns of stimulus and response (reward and publishment), or ‘operant conditioning’: 35  An important process in human behavior is attributed … to ‘reward and punishment’. Thorndike described it in his Law of Effect. It is now commonly referred to as ‘operant conditioning’ … The essentials may be seen in a typical experimental arrangement. A h ungry rat [can be seen] in an experimental space which contains a food dispenser. A horizontal bar at the end of a lever projects from one wall. Depression of the lever operates a switch. When the switch relates to the food dispenser, any behavior on part of the rat which depresses the lever is, as we say, ‘reinforced with food’. The apparatus simply makes the appearance of food contingent upon the occurrence of an arbitrary bit of behavior … The relation between a response and its consequences may be simple, and the change in probability of the response is not surprising. What is technologically useful in operant conditioning is our increasing knowledge of the extraordinarily subtle and complex properties of behavior which may be traced to subtle and complex features of the contingencies of reinforcement which prevail in the environment … The application of operant conditioning to education is simple and direct. Teaching is the arrangement of contingencies of reinforcement under which students learn. They learn without teaching in their natural environments, but teachers arrange special con tingencies which expedite learning, hastening the appearance of behavior which would otherwise be acquired slowly or making sure of the appearance of behavior which might otherwise never occur. In improving teaching, it is less important to find new reinforcers than to design better contingencies using those already available. Immediate and consistent reinforcement is, of course, desirable but this is not to deny the importance of intermittent or remote reinforcers. The student who knows how to study knows how to amplify immediate consequences so that they prove reinforcing. He not only knows, but he also knows that he knows and is reinforced accordingly. The transition from external reinforcement to the self- generated reinforcement of knowing what one knows is often badly handled. In a small class the percurrent behavior of listening, reading, solving problems, and composing sentences is reinforced frequently and almost immediately, but in a large lecture course the consequences are infrequent and deferred. If mediating devices have not been set up, if the student is not automatically reinforced for knowing that he knows, he then stops working, and the aversive by-product of not-knowing pile up. Frequent reinforcement raises another problem if it reduces the teacher’s reinforcing power. Money, food, grades, and honors must be husbanded carefully, but the automatic reinforcements of being right and moving forward are inexhaustible. Strictly speaking, the student cannot reinforce or punish himself by withholding positive or negative reinforcers until he has behaved in a given way, but he can seek out or arrange conditions under which his behavior is reinforced or punished … He can cre ate reinforcing events, as by checking an answer to a problem. He can stop emitting unreinforced responses in an unfavorable situation … for example, he can learn not to read books which are too hard for him so that his inclination to read other books will not suffer … Education has never taught the self-management of motivation very effectively. It has seldom tried. But techniques become available as soon as the problem is understood. 36 Motivation in Teaching and Learning Process Motivation is defined as our enthusiasm for doing something. It is the ‘why’ behind every action. Motivation is the reason – or reasons – for acting or behaving in a particular way. It helps us to set a goal and reach it. The term ‘motivation’ is derived from the Latin verb ‘movere’, so quite literally, it’s what keeps us moving. In education, motivation helps children and young people to focus their attention on a key goal or outcome. In doing so, they are unfazed by possible distractions, and are therefore able to maintain their attention during longer periods of time. Students who are motivated display goal- orientated behaviors. They take initiative, show resilience, harness their curiosity, and care for and respect their work. They are equipped to orchestrate their own learning journey. Discovering ways to increase motivation in the classroom is vital, as it enables us to: Change behavior. Develop competencies. Spark curiosity. Set goals. Develop interests. Plan. Blossom talents. Increase engagement. Getting students engaged in a lesson or unit of work is something a talented teacher can achieve, but motivating them to become better learners, who strive to achieve their true potential, can be incredibly challenging, especially as our experience of motivation is often unconscious. Unmotivated students are often disengaged or disaffected, which can lead to challenging behavior. How Motivation Affects Learning & Behavior Motivation has several effects on students' learning and behavior. First, motivation directs behavior toward particular goals. Motivation determines the specific goals toward which people strive; thus, it affects the choices students make. For example, whether to enroll in an art class or physics, whether to attend a school basketball game during the week or complete an assignment that's due the next day. Motivation also leads to increased effort and energy. Motivation determines whether a student will pursue a task (even a difficult one) with enthusiasm or a lackluster attitude. 37 Motivation increases the initiation and persistence of activities. In our first example, Erik continued with art-type activities in his free time and he also tried to perform these types of activities in relation to his other assignments. Motivation will increase students' time on task and is also an important factor affecting their learning and achievement. Motivation enhances cognitive processing. Motivation actually affects what and how information is processed because motivated students are more likely to pay attention and try to understand the material instead of simply going through the motions of learning in a superficial manner. Motivation determines what consequences are reinforcing and punishing. For example, students with a high level of motivation for classroom achievement and high GPAs are reinforced by receiving a grade of 'A' and they'll feel punished if they receive a grade of 'F.' 38