EDUC 70 Notes.pdf

JOHN FLAVELL: Variables of Metacognition 1. Person Variables (What) METACOGNITION - An individual's understanding of their John H. Flavell...

JOHN FLAVELL: Variables of Metacognition 1. Person Variables (What) METACOGNITION - An individual's understanding of their John H. Flavell own cognitive strengths, weaknesses, and American developmental psychologist. learning styles. He’s the father who coined the term 2. Task Variables (How) “Metacognition”. - Encompasses knowledge about the Metacognition nature of the task at hand, including its Meta difficulty, required strategies, and potential - Greek word means “beyond” or “on challenges. top of” 3. Strategy Variables (When and Why) Cognition - Knowledge of various cognitive strategies - Latin word, “cognoscere” - “cognito” and their effectiveness in different means “get to know” situations. - Selecting and applying appropriate The ability to think about thinking. strategies to achieve a goal. Used to make decisions that maximize learning outcomes and Metacognition Process help students meet their goals. Helps learners see that they use their time How to use their brains. to recall, analyze, interpret, and apply What, when, where, and why the information. skills and strategies are used? 1. Plan/Planning Thinking not only about the “what” Setting goals, choosing strategies, and of learning but also about the “how” organizing your thoughts. 2. Monitor/Monitoring Components of Metacognition Check your understanding and adjust your Meta-attention approach as needed. The comprehension - Awareness and control of your of the topic. attention. 3. Evaluate/Evaluating Meta-memory Reflecting on your performance and - An important form of learning from mistakes. Metacognition - Knowing about memory and NOVICE AND EXPERT LEARNERS mnemonic strategies Novice Learners - Also known as “Socratic A person with poor learning strategies Awareness” or the self-reflective results in shallow learning and who just judgments started learning Metacognitive Knowledge Expert Learners - This is the metacognitive awareness A person who applies metacognitive - What individuals know about strategies in learning which constantly themselves and others as cognitive monitors their learning to consequently processors adjust their strategies to make learning more effective  REVIEW AND PREVIEW PQ4R Help students connect new - Improve reading comprehension information to their prior and retention. knowledge and solidify - Used in a study of a unit or chapter understanding. - Usually adult learners Review P – Preview - Summarizes and reiterates Skim through the material to get an previously learned material. overview of its content and structure. - Reinforces key concepts and skills. Q – Question - Activates prior knowledge to Turn headings and subheadings into prepare students for new learning. questions to guide your reading. Preview R – Read - Introduces upcoming content. Actively read the text, looking for answers - Generates interest and curiosity. to your questions. - Helps students build a framework for new information. R – Reflect Think about what you've read and connect it to your prior knowledge LEARNING STRATEGIES R – Recite TQLR Summarize the main points to reinforce - Improve listening comprehension learning. - Applicable for young learners. R – Review T – Tune In Revisit the material to strengthen Prepare yourself to listen by focusing on understanding and memory the topic 4A’s Q – Question Activity Develop questions related to the topic to Engaging students in hands-on tasks or guide your listening. experiences. L – Listen Analysis Actively pay attention to the information Breaking down information or concepts presented, taking notes into smaller parts to understand them R – Review better. Reflect on what you've heard, answer your Abstraction questions, and summarize the key points. Generalizing from specific examples to form broader concepts or rules. Application Using learned knowledge or skills in new situations or problems.  JEAN PIAGET: Stages of Cognitive Development COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 1. Sensorimotor Stage (birth to 2 years) “The principal goal of education in the - Infants explore the world through schools should be creating men and their senses and motor actions. women who are capable of doing new Object Permanence things, not simply repeating what other Understanding that objects continue to generations have done. “ exist even when out of sight. Jean Piaget 2. Preoperational Stage Swiss psychologist is renowned for (2 to 7 years) his groundbreaking work on child - Children develop language and development. symbolic thinking but still have Constructivism difficulty with logical reasoning. Children actively construct their - Perception is limited and understanding of the world through their understanding is based on concrete experiences and interactions. objects - Tends to attribute human Schema: The Building Blocks of characteristics to intimate objects Knowledge - Has difficulty understanding that A mental framework or concept that helps some things can be reversed and us organize and interpret information. has a hard time understanding Assimilation cause and effect relationship When we encounter new information, we Egocentric try to fit it into our existing schemas. - Believing that everyone sees the world from their perspective. Accommodation If new information doesn't fit into an 3. Concrete Operational Stage existing schema, we modify the schema or (7 to 11 years) create a new one to accommodate the new - Children can think logically about information. concrete objects and events Conservation Equilibration - Understanding that quantity It refers to the process of balancing new remains the same even if information with existing knowledge appearance changes. (schemas). 4. Formal Operational Stage Cognitive Development (12 and adulthood) Considers the active role of an - Individuals can think abstractly, individual as a factor in human hypothetically, and deductively. development Explains how a child understands - They can engage in scientific the world: how he thinks, reasons reasoning and consider multiple out, remembers, and solves possibilities. problems Children's thinking develops through distinct stages.  IVAN PAVLOV: Extinction - The gradual weakening and CLASSICAL CONDITIONING eventual disappearance of a Ivan Pavlov conditioned response when the Renowned Russian physiologist best conditioned stimulus is presented known for his groundbreaking work on repeatedly without the classical conditioning. unconditioned stimulus. Pavlov's Famous Experiment Discrimination Pavlov observed that dogs naturally - The ability to differentiate between salivate when presented with food. a conditioned stimulus and other He then introduced a neutral stimuli that do not signal an stimulus, such as a bell, before unconditioned stimulus. feeding the dogs. After repeated Unconditioned Stimulus (US) pairings of the bell and food, the - Stimulus that naturally triggers a dogs began to salivate at the sound response. For example, food makes of the bell alone, even without the a dog salivate. presence of food. This demonstrated that a neutral Unconditioned Response (UR) stimulus (the bell) could be - Natural response to the conditioned to elicit a response unconditioned stimulus. In the dog (salivation) that was originally example, salivation is the produced by a different stimulus unconditioned response. (food). Neutral Stimulus (NS) Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian) - A stimulus that initially doesn't A type of learning that occurs trigger a response. In Pavlov's through the association of two experiment, it was the sound of a stimuli. bell. Behaviors are learned by Conditioned Stimulus (CS) connecting a neutral stimulus with - Neutral stimulus that has been a positive one, such as when paired with the unconditioned Pavlov's dogs heard a bell (neutral) stimulus to produce a conditioned and expected food (positive). response. After conditioning, the bell becomes the conditioned Stimulus Generalization stimulus. - It's when you learn a response to one stimulus and then apply that Conditioned Response (CR) same response to similar stimuli. - This is the learned response to the - This is where a neutral stimulus conditioned stimulus. The dog becomes associated with a salivating to the bell is the meaningful stimulus, leading to a conditioned response. conditioned response.  EDWARD THORNDIKE: Edward Thorndike’s Primary Law ACTIVE LEARNING 1. Law of Effect - Behaviors followed by a reward or Edward Thorndike reinforcement are more likely in the Pioneering American psychologist best future, whereas behaviors followed known for his work on animal intelligence by a punishment are less likely in and the law of effect. the future Connectionism Theory - The connection between a stimulus It gave us the original S-R and response is strengthened when framework of behavioral the consequence is positive psychology. (reward) and the connection Learning could be adequately between the stimulus and the explained without consideration of response is weakened when the any observable internal states. consequence is negative. Learning takes place when a strong 2. Law of Exercise connection or bond between - The more a stimulus-response bond stimulus and response is formed. is practiced, the stronger it becomes. Principles Derived from Connectionism: - Conversely, the less a stimulus- Learning requires both practice and response bond is practiced, the rewards (law of effect/exercise) weaker it becomes. A series of S-R connectionisms can - Essentially, it's the "practice makes be chained together if they belong perfect" principle. The more you to the same action sequence (law of repeat something, the better you readiness). become at it. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered 3. Law of Readiness situations. - The more readiness the learner Intelligence is a function of the must respond to the stimulus, the number of connections learned. stronger will be the bond between them. Thorndike's Puzzle Boxes - If a learner is not ready to learn, the He placed hungry cats in puzzle boxes with learning process will be less a lever that would open the door. Through effective. trial and error, the cats eventually learned to press the lever to escape and obtain food. Reinforcement Positive outcomes strengthen behavior. Punishment Negative outcomes weaken behavior.  BURRHUS FREDERIC / Shaping - Gradually molding behavior B.F. SKINNER: through reinforcement of OPERANT CONDITIONING successive approximations. B.F. Skinner? Stimulus Generalization A prominent American psychologist who is - Learning through rewards and considered the leading figure in punishments. behaviorism. - When a behavior learned in one situation is applied to similar Operant Conditioning situations. Behavior is influenced by its consequences. Learning is a result of a change in obvious Primary Reinforcers behavior. Changes in behavior are the Those that have innate reinforcing results of individuals' responses to events qualities, such as food, water, or (stimuli) that occur in the environment. shelter Key Concepts Behavior Chaining Reinforcement Comes about when a series of steps - Increasing the likelihood of a are needed to be learned. behavior by providing a reward or removing an aversive stimulus (any Reinforcement Schedules stimulus or event that is unpleasant Once the desired behavioral or undesirable). responses are accomplished, reinforcement does not have to be Reinforcer 100%. - Anything that strengthens the desired responses. Fixed Internal Schedule The target response is reinforced Positive Reinforcement after a fixed amount of time has - Stimulus that is given to increase passed since the last reinforcement. the response. - Adding something desirable (e.g., Variable Inter Schedule praise, treats). Similar to a fixed interval schedule the amount of time that must pass Negative Reinforcement between reinforcement varies. - Stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a response Fixed Ratio Schedule when it is withdrawn or removed. A fixed number of correct responses - It is not a punishment; it is a reward. must occur before reinforcement - Removing something unpleasant may recur. (e.g., removing a chore). Variation Ratio Schedule Punishment The number of correct repetitions of - A consequence that decreases the the correct response for likelihood of a behavior happening reinforcement varies. again and removing something desirable.  GESTALT THEORY JEROME BRUNER: "The whole is greater than the sum of its COGNITIVE THEORY parts." “Learning is an active process in which Form or Configuration learners construct new ideas or concepts Emphasizes the importance of the based upon their current or past sensory and dynamic nature of knowledge.” visual perception Jerome Bruner? Perception Process A highly influential American Principles of Gestalt Theory psychologist who made significant 1. Law of Proximity contributions to the fields of Objects close to each other are perceived cognitive psychology and as a group. educational psychology. 2. Law of Similarity Best known for his work on Objects that share similar characteristics perception, learning, memory, and are perceived as a group. cognitive development in children. 3. Law of Closure Cognitive Theory We tend to fill in gaps to create complete Let the learners discover and objects. construct their hypotheses. 4. Law of Good Continuation We prefer to perceive objects as Constructivism continuous rather than discontinuous. Bruner was a strong advocate for 5. Law of Good Pragnanz constructivism, the idea that learners People tend to perceive complex actively construct their knowledge based information in the simplest way possible. on their experiences and interactions with the world. Learning Barriers Attitude Stages of Cognitive Development Past Experiences Enactive Level Needs - Direct manipulation of objects Present Situation - Learning through physical actions. Proponents of Gestalt Theory Iconic Level Max Wertheimer - Learning through images and visual Considered the "father" of Gestalt representations. psychology, he is credited with the initial formulation of the theory Symbolic Level Kurt Koffka - Learning through language and A key figure in expanding Gestalt abstract thought. principles to various fields. Wolfgang Köhler Known for his work on problem- solving and insight learning in chimpanzees, contributing to Gestalt Theory.  DAVID PAUL AUSUBEL: ROBERT M. GAGNE’: MEANINGFUL LEARNING INSTRUCTIONAL THEORY DESIGN “Meaningful learning occurs when the Robert M. Gagné material to be learned is related to what A prominent American educational the student already knows.” psychologist renowned for his significant contributions to the field David Paul Ausubel of instructional design. A prominent American psychologist Key Contributions renowned for his contributions to educational psychology and Five Adapting Skills cognitive science. Verbal Information Skills Intellectual Skills Meaningful Learning Cognitive strategies Learners actively integrate new Motor skills information with existing Attitude knowledge structures. This process, called subsumption, is crucial for Nine Events of Learning Instruction long-term retention and Gaining attention understanding. Informing learners of objectives This occurs when new information Stimulating recall of prior learning is connected to existing knowledge Presenting the stimulus structures (schemas) in the learner's Providing learning guidance mind. Eliciting performance Rote Learning Providing feedback Memorization without understanding. Assessing performance Enhancing retention and transfer Advance Organizers These are introductory materials that provide an overview of a topic and help TRANSFER OF LEARNING learners connect new information to their Ability to use gained knowledge towards existing knowledge base. something. Types of Transfer Positive Transfer Use of prior knowledge to enhance or improve learning. Negative Transfer Prior knowledge interferes with the ability to learn new knowledge.  THEORIES OF LEARNING MOTIVATION - Process of arousing and sustaining Theory of Mental Discipline the interests of students in order to - Acquired knowledge from training achieve their goals. or skills Theory of Identical Elements Forms of Motivation - The transfer is due to the identity of 1. Positive Motivation the content. - Curiosity is used to achieve a goal. Theory of Generalization 2. Negative Motivation - Emphasizes the understanding and - The result of negative emotions recognition of relationships between the generalization of two List of Negative Emotions learning experiences. Fear Anxiety Theory of Configuration Rage - Unified or total patterns of Insecurities. organization Types of Motivation BIOLOGICAL BASIS 1. Intrinsic Motivation OF LEARNING - Internal factors such as acting upon The biological process of attaining personal satisfaction. knowledge. Indicators of Intrinsic Motivation Curiosity Neurons Creativity Nucleus Higher order thinking Axon where transmission occurs 2. Extrinsic Motivation Synapses - External factors such as rewards or space between axons. Transmitter compliments and approval of society, tangible and intangible. Principles of Motivation 1. Environment and Materials 2. Incentives Motivate Learning 3. Internal/Intrinsic Motivation Lasts Longer 4. Readiness of Learners How to sustain the interest of learners? Curiosity  ABRAHAM MASLOW: DAVID MCCLELLAND: HIERARCHY OF NEEDS NEED ACHIEVEMENT THEORY Abraham Maslow Let the students choose what to Renowned American psychologist learn and challenge them. Pioneer in humanistic psychology, Guiding students towards learning which emphasizes the individual's by themselves. potential for growth and self- actualization. ATTRIBUTION THEORY Hierarchy of Needs Students must experience both Motivational theory in psychology success and failure to balance their suggests human needs are knowledge and determine which to arranged in a hierarchical order. improve and which to develop. This means that basic needs must be fulfilled before individuals can move on to higher-level needs. The Levels of the Hierarchy Physiological Needs Most basic needs required for survival, such as air, water, food, shelter, clothing, warmth, sleep, and reproduction. Safety Needs Freedom and free from anxiety. People focus on safety, including personal security, employment, resources, health, property, and social stability. Love and Belonging Needs The need for interpersonal relationships motivates behavior. This includes friendship, intimacy, trust, and a sense of belonging. Esteem Needs Once people feel a sense of belonging, they seek self-esteem, respect, and appreciation from others. This also includes personal worth, mastery, independence, and status. Self-Actualization Needs The highest level refers to the realization of one's full potential, including personal growth, peak experiences, and helping others.