Part2-Chapter-7-adult-phys PDF

Chapter 7. Emerging and Early Adulthood: Physical Development Learning Objectives: Early Adulthood Physical Development 1. Define emerging adulthood. 2. Name the five characteristics of emerging adulthood. 3. Discuss the criteria for adulthood....

Chapter 7. Emerging and Early Adulthood: Physical Development Learning Objectives: Early Adulthood Physical Development 1. Define emerging adulthood. 2. Name the five characteristics of emerging adulthood. 3. Discuss the criteria for adulthood. 4. Define established adulthood. 5. Discuss the physiologic peak. 6. Discuss the most prevalent chronic illnesses of early adulthood. 7. Discuss the top 11 causes of death in early adulthood. Early adulthood spans from approximately 18 (the end of adolescence) until 45 (beginning of middle adulthood). More recently, developmentalists have divided this age period into two separate stages: Emerging adulthood (ages 18-29) followed by established adulthood (ages 30-45) (Mehta et al., 2020). The age period from 18 to 45 is a time of peak physical capabilities and the emergence of more mature cognitive development, financial independence, and intimate relationships. Emerging Adulthood Defined Emerging adulthood is the period between the late teens and late twenties; ages 18-29 (Mehta et al., 2020; Society for the Study of Emerging Adulthood, 2016). Arnett (2000) argues that emerging adulthood is neither adolescence nor is it adulthood. Individuals in this age period have left behind the relative dependency of childhood and adolescence but have not yet taken on the responsibilities of adulthood. “Emerging adulthood is a time of life when many different directions remain possible, when little about the future is decided for certain, when the scope of independent exploration of life’s possibilities is greater for most people than it will be at any other period of the life course” (Arnett, 2000, p. 469). Arnett identified five characteristics of emerging adulthood that distinguished it from adolescence and young adulthood (Arnett, 2006). 1. It is the age of identity exploration. In 1950, Erik Erikson proposed that it was during adolescence that humans wrestled with the question of identity. Yet, even Erikson (1968) commented on a trend during the 20th century of a “prolonged adolescence” in industrialized societies. Today, most identity development occurs during the late teens and early twenties. During emerging adulthood people explore their career choices and beliefs about intimate relationships. 2. Arnett also described this time period as the age of instability (Arnett, 2000; Arnett, 2006). Exploration generates uncertainty and instability. Emerging adults change jobs, relationships, and residences more frequently than other age groups. 3. This is also the age of self-focus. Being self-focused is not the same as being “self- centered.” Adolescents are more self-centered than emerging adults who are very 119  considerate of the feelings of others, especially their parents. Emergent adults are able to see their parents as people not just parents, a perspective most adolescents do not have (Arnett, 2006). Nonetheless, emerging adults focus on themselves, as they realize that they have few obligations to others and can use this time to do what they want with their life. 4. This is also the age of feeling in-between. When asked if they feel like adults, more 18- to 25-year-olds answer “yes and no” than do teens or adults over the age of 25 (Arnett, 2001). Most emerging adults have gone through the changes of puberty, are typically no longer in high school, and many have also moved out of their parents’ home. Thus, they no longer feel as dependent as they did as teenagers. Yet, they may still be financially dependent on their parents to some degree, and they have not completely attained some of the indicators of adulthood, such as finishing their education, obtaining a good full-time job, being in a committed relationship, or being responsible for others. It is not surprising that Arnett found that 60% of 18- to 25- year-olds felt that in some ways they were adults, but in some ways, they were not (Arnett, 2001). 5. Emerging adulthood is the age of possibilities. It is a time of optimism as more 18- to 25-year-olds feel that they will someday get to where they want to be in life. Arnett (2000, 2006) suggests that this optimism is because these dreams have yet to be tested. For example, it is easier to believe that you will someday find your soul mate when you haven’t yet had a serious relationship! This period of life brings a chance to change directions, for those whose lives up to this point have been difficult. The experiences of children and teens are influenced by the choices and decisions of their parents. If the parents are dysfunctional, there is little a child can do about it. In emerging adulthood, people can move out and move on. They have the chance to transform their lives and move away from unhealthy environments. Even those whose lives were happier and more fulfilling as children, now have the opportunity in emerging adulthood to become independent and make decisions about the direction they would like their life to take. Socioeconomic Status and Emerging Adulthood The theory of emerging adulthood was initially criticized as only reflecting upper middle- class, college-attending young adults in the United States and not those who were working class or poor (Arnett, 2016). Consequently, Arnett reviewed results from the 2012 Clark University Poll of Emerging Adults, whose participants were demographically similar to the United States population. Results primarily indicated consistencies across aspects of the theory, including positive and negative perceptions of the time-period and views on education, work, love, sex, and marriage. Two significant differences were found, the first being that emerging adults from lower socioeconomic classes identified more negativity in their emotional lives, including higher levels of depression. Secondly, those in the lowest socioeconomic group were more likely to agree that they had not been able to find sufficient financial support to obtain the education they believed they needed. Overall, Arnett concluded that emerging adulthood exists wherever there is a period between the end of adolescence and entry into adult roles. Social, cultural, and historical contexts determine whether individuals have the luxury of the moratorium of emerging adulthood. 120 When Does Adulthood Begin? Historically the process of becoming an adult was marked by rites of passage such as graduation, marriage, and parenthood (Rankin and Kenyon (2008)). Economic and social changes resulted in more young adults attending college (Rankin & Kenyon, 2008) and delaying marriage and parenthood (Arnett & Taber, 1994; Laursen & Jensen- Campbell, 1999). Today in WEIRD nations financial independence and self- responsibility are the most important markers of adulthood across age (Arnett, 2001) and ethnic groups (Arnett, 2004). Established Adulthood Defined Individuals between the ages 30 and 50, differ from emerging adults in a variety of ways, including career development, long-term intimate partnerships, and child rearing. In contrast to previous generations, individuals residing WEIRD nations may still be obtaining advanced education and job training in their twenties (Mehta et al., 2020). Established adulthood is the time of peak social and occupational fitness. Upon completing education, partnering, and having children, established adults are ready to compete with the prior generation for leadership positions in society. In contrast to the career exploration of emerging adults, established adults take on greater career responsibilities, gain expertise, and begin moving up in their organizations. Established adults typically have young children at home, and so must balance family and career obligations. Emerging and Established Adults’ Living Arrangements In 2014, for the first time in more than 130 years, adults 18 to 34 were more likely to be living in their parents’ home than they were to be living with a spouse or partner in their own household (Fry, 2016). The current trend is that young Americans are not choosing to settle down romantically before age 35. Since 1880, living with a romantic partner was the most common living arrangement among young adults. In 1960, 62% of America’s 18- to 34-year-olds were living with a spouse or partner in their own household, while only 20% were living with their parents. By 2014, 31.6% of early adults were living with a spouse or partner in their own household, while 32.1% were living in the home of their parent(s). Another 14% of early adults lived alone, were a single parent, or lived with one or more roommates. The remaining 22% lived in the home of another family member (such as a grandparent, in- law, or sibling), a non-relative, or in group quarters (e.g., college dormitories). Comparing ethnic groups, 36% of black and Hispanic early adults lived at home, while 30% of white young adults lived at home. Gender differences in living arrangements are also noted in that young men were living with parents at a higher rate than young women. In 2014, 35% of young men were residing with their parents, while 28% were living with a spouse or partner in their own household. Young women were more likely to be living with a spouse or partner (35%) 121 than living with their parents (29%). Additionally, more young women (16%) than young men (13%) were heading up a household without a spouse or partner, primarily because women are more likely to be single parents living with their children. Lastly, young men (25%) were more likely than young women (19%) to be living in the home of another family member, a non-relative, or in some type of group quarters (Fry, 2016). What are some factors that help explain these changes in living arrangements? First, emerging and established adults are postponing marriage or choosing not to marry or cohabitate. Lack of employment and lower wages have especially contributed to males residing with their parents. Men who are employed are less likely to live at home. Wages for young men (adjusting for inflation) have been falling since 1970 and correlate with the rise in young men living with their parents. The recent recession and recovery (2007-present) has also contributed to the increase in early adults living at home. College enrollments increased during the recession, which further increased early adults living at home. However, once early adults possess a college degree, they are more likely to establish their own households (Fry, 2016). Young adults who live with their parents are much less likely to experience poverty and they contribute financially to the household enough to benefit their parents. 122  The Physiological Peak People in their mid-twenties to mid-forties are in early adulthood and have stopped growing. Those in their early twenties are probably at the peak of their physiological development, including muscle strength, reaction time, sensory abilities, and cardiac functioning. The reproductive system, motor skills, strength, and lung capacity are all operating at their best. Most professional athletes are at the top of their game during this stage (Table 7-1), and many women have children in the early-adulthood years (Boundless, 2016). Sport Age at Peak Performance Swimming In 2016, the average age of a swimmer on the US Olympic swim team was 23.7, with ages ranging from 15-30. Sprint Running Olympic 100 meters running average age is 25.4 years for men and 26.6 for women. Marathon The fastest marathoners for both men and women are in the 25-34 age group. Running Cycling Tour de France winner, average age 28.5. Ironman (swim, The age of peak performance approximately 33–34 years bike, run 112 mi.) Baseball A player's peak age is around age 27, with the age group 23-32 being a hitter's 10 best years. Soccer The peak period for a tackle appears to be from their age 25 to age 31. Tennis Top tennis players reach their highest levels of performance at age 24. Golf Golfers peak at about 31 years of age Table 0-1. Age at peak athletic performance for various sports. Chronic Illness Percent Prevalence of Chronic Illness in Young Adults 60 50 18–24 Years 25–34 Years 40 30 20 10 0 Figure 0-1. Chronic medical conditions in young adults (18-34) (2021); HBP= high blood pressure. 123 Along with the physiological peak, the aging process begins during early adulthood. Around the age of 30, many changes begin to occur in different parts of the body. For example, the lens of the eye starts to stiffen and thicken, resulting in changes in vision (usually affecting the ability to focus on close objects). Sensitivity to sound decreases; this happens twice as quickly for men as for women. Hair can start to thin and become gray around the age of 35, although this may happen earlier for some individuals and later for others. The skin becomes drier, and wrinkles start to appear by the end of early adulthood. People may experience a decline in reaction time and the ability to recover quickly from physical exertion. The immune system also becomes less adept at fighting off illness, and reproductive capacity starts to decline (Boundless, 2016). The habits of unbalanced diet and lack of physical activity that begin during childhood continue into adulthood and cause illness in progressively more individuals (Figure 7-1). Lack of positive health behaviors occurs in the context of substance use in a large percentage of adults. The top causes of illness and death in young adults are linked to behavior and mental health. In 2019, 53.8% of adults aged 18─34 years had at least one chronic condition, and 22.3% had more than one condition. The most prevalent conditions were obesity (BMI>30) (25.5%), depression (21.3%), and high blood pressure (10.7%). Adults aged 18–34 years with a chronic condition were more likely than those without one to report binge drinking, smoking, or physical inactivity. By early adulthood 15% of men and 11% of women have high blood pressure (Watson, 2022). Obesity Figure 0-2. Prevalence of obesity by adult age group.in 2021 (CDC). Although young adults are at the peak of physical health, the rate of obesity is high and climbs each decade. Body mass index or BMI is defined as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared (kg/m2). BMI is used to classify overweight (BMI 25.0– 29.9), obesity (BMI greater than or equal to 30.0), and extreme obesity (BMI greater than or equal to 40.0). Nearly 30.7% of adults are overweight and 41.9% are obese. That means less than a quarter of adults are at a healthy weight. From 1999 to 2020 the 124 prevalence of extreme obesity increased from 4.7% to 9.2% of adults. The 20s are the prime time to gain weight as the average person gains one to two pounds per year from early adulthood into middle adulthood (Figure 7-2). The average man in his 20s weighs around 185 pounds and by his 30s weighs approximately 200 pounds. The average American woman weighs 162 pounds in her 20s and 170 pounds in her 30s. Obesity-related conditions include heart disease, stroke, type 2 diabetes, and certain types of cancer. These are among the leading causes of preventable, premature death. The estimated annual medical cost of obesity in the United States was nearly $173 billion in 2019 dollars. Medical costs for adults who had obesity were $1,861 higher than medical costs for people with healthy weight (CDC, 2022). Cigarette Smoking Among Adults Cigarette smoking remains the leading cause of preventable disease, disability, and death in the United States, accounting for more than 480,000 deaths every year, or about 1 in 5 deaths. Recent cohorts are smoking less, 7.4% of 18–24-year-olds smoke compared to 14.1% of 25–44 year olds and 14.9% of 45–64 year olds. Alcohol Use and Use Disorders Most adults over 18 (86.3%) report drinking alcohol at some point in their lifetime; 70.0 percent report they drank in the past year; 55.3 percent report that they drank in the past month. In 2018, 26.5 percent of people ages 18 or older reported that they engaged in binge drinking in the past month; 6.6 percent reported that they engaged in heavy alcohol use in the past month. Heavy drinking is defined as drinking five or more drinks on the same occasion on each of five or more days in the past 30 days. Alcohol Use Disorder occurs in 5.8% of adults ages 18 and older. This includes 9.2 million men (7.6 percent of men in this age group3) and 5.3 million women (4.1 percent of women in this age group). Only about 7.9 percent of adults who had AUD in the past year received treatment. Nearly 88,000 people (approximately 62,000 men and 26,000 women) die from alcohol-related causes annually, making alcohol the third leading preventable cause of death in the United States. The first is tobacco, and the second is poor diet and physical inactivity (Alcohol Facts and Statistics | National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA), n.d.). 125 Drug Use Drug use is highest among persons between the ages of 18-25 at 39% compared to persons aged 26-29, at 34%. Within the last year, 22% of males and 17% of females used illegal drugs or misused prescription drugs. Marijuana is the most used drug other than alcohol and more people smoke marijuana than smoke tobacco. About 30% of those who use marijuana may have some degree of marijuana use disorder. In 2019, 43% of college students consumed marijuana, which was the highest rate of marijuana consumption among that group since 1983 (NCDAS, 2023). % Usership Youth Adults Substance 12-17 18+ Marijuana 10.10% 18.70% Heroin N/A 0.40% Opioids 1.60% 3.60% Prescription Pain 1.60% 3.50% Medication Prescription 1.20% 1.90% Stimulants LSD 0.90% 1.00% Cocaine 0.30% 2.00% Prescription 0.10% 2.40% Sedatives Methamphetamines 0.10% 1.00% Figure 0-3. Prevalence of drug use. Mental Health Conditions More than one in five U.S. adults live with a mental illness (57.8 million in 2021). Mental illnesses include many different conditions that vary in degree of severity, ranging from mild to moderate to severe. Two broad categories can be used to describe these conditions: Any Mental Illness (AMI) and Serious Mental Illness (SMI). Any mental illness (AMI) (Figure 7-3) is defined as a mental, behavioral, or emotional disorder. AMI can vary in impact, ranging from no impairment to mild, moderate, and even severe impairment. 126 Figure 0-4. Prevalence of any mental illness in adults by age and ethnic group source. The highest prevalence of mental illness occurs in young adulthood. The peak age of onset of mood disorders such as major depression and bipolar disorder, schizophrenia and personality disorders is in early adulthood (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Figure 0-5. Prevalence of serious mental illness in adults by age group source. Serious mental illness (SMI) (Figure 7-4) is defined as a mental, behavioral, or emotional disorder resulting in serious functional impairment, which substantially interferes with or limits one or more major life activities. The burden of mental illnesses is particularly concentrated among those who experience disability due to SMI. The low prevalence of SMI in adults over 50 is partly due to early death in individuals with SMI. 127  Causes of Death in Adulthood Top 11 Causes of Death in Adults 25-44 Years Pregnancy 747 Influenza 1148 CVA 2608 Diabetes 4072 Liver Disease 6569 COVID-19 9133 Homicide 11607 Cancer 14303 Suicide 15768 Heart Disease 16161 Accidents 62372 0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000 Figure 0-6. Leading causes of death in early adulthood 2020 (CDC). Accidents are the leading cause of death in early adulthood. Poisoning from opioid overdose is the most common cause of accidental death followed by motor vehicle accidents; falls are a distant third. The next causes of death are heart disease, suicide, cancer, and homicide. Despite the fact that COVID-19 disproportionately killed older adults, this disease still made the top 10 causes of death. Note that pregnancy was the 11th leading cause of death even though only women experience pregnancy. 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