PARA 100 PowerPoints 1-3.pdf

Bring textbooks Youtube : Dr Mike + Matt , Khan academy ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PARA 1000 K. LOYNACHAN 1 Anatomy: the study of normal structure...

Bring textbooks Youtube : Dr Mike + Matt , Khan academy ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY PARA 1000 K. LOYNACHAN 1 Anatomy: the study of normal structure and shape of the body and its parts Physiology: the study of normal function of the body and its parts Structure determines Function 2 GROSS ANATOMY Large structures Easily observable i.e., bones, muscles, heart 3 1  MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY Body structures too small to see with the naked eye Microscope required i.e. cells, tissue features 4 # Exam 5 cooling From Skin is the largest Organ System - - - # - - 6 2  # One Exam system affected it affects others 7 BODY SYSTEMS Integumentary Lymphatic Immune system · - waste Skeletal Respiratory disposal Muscular Digestive cleaning (praking the P Nervous Urinary mess Endocrine - Reproductive Cleans our Cardiovascular System 8 REMEMBER When describing a patient to base hospital assume there in Anatomical Position ANATOMICAL POSITION Regional terms and landmarks 9 3  know the Regions 10 THE LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY Medical Terminology 11 ANATOMY SPEAK Superior (cranial) Inferior (caudal) Anterior (ventral) front Posterior (dorsal) back 12 4  ANATOMY SPEAK Medial inward Lateral outward closer to Core away from core Proximal Distal: legs amms legs t arms 13 ANATOMY SPEAK when talking a Intermediate Not through organs Superficial (external) rug burn Deep (internal) hit organ lett. 14 PLANES AND SECTIONS PLANE: imaginary flat plate or line SECTION: slice or cut When made through an organ or wall is called Plane (imaginary line that divides the Structure) When do we use and see these with respect to the human body? 15 5  PLANES Horizontal (Transverse) : cross section Superior and inferior portions Sagittal (Mid-sagittal, Median) Left and Right Sections Coronal (Frontal) Anterior and posterior planes 16 17 BODY CAVITIES Body Cavities Dorsal Ventral Cavity Cavity 18 6  Body Cavities Figure 1.7 SLIDE 1.27 19 Dorsal Cavity Cranial Spinal Cavity Cavity 20 Ventral Thoracic Abdominopelvic Abdominal Pelvic 21 7  Cavities Dorsal Ventral Cranial Spinal Thoracic Abdominopelvic Pericardial Abdominal Heart Pleural Pelvic lungs 22 OTHER SMALLER BODY CAVITIES: Oral Mediastinum behind Sternum Digestive Nasal Orbital where eyes are Middle Ear 23 Abdominopelvic Quadrants Figure 1.8a SLIDE 1.28 24 8  Peritoneal A double layered membrane that stretches across the STRUCTURES abdomen and pelvis and WITHIN covers many organs for EACH support and Protection QUADRANT Retroperitoneal Area (potential space) behind the peritoneum. kidneys 25 STRUCTURES WITHIN EACH #test QUADRANT Right Upper Left Upper Liver, Gall bladder, Part Stomach, spleen, part of of pancreas & stomach, liver, upper colon upper colon Right Lower Left Lower Small Intestine, Small intestine, Appendix, Ascending descending & sigmoid colon, Part bladder, colon, part bladder, reproductive organs reproductive organs 26 Abdominopelvic Regions Figure 1.8b SLIDE 1.29 27 9 28 Major Organs Figure 1.8c SLIDE 1.30 29 LET’S BEGIN… 30 10  Water 60–80% of body weight Provides medium for metabolic reactions, secretions and excretions Stable body temperature WHAT 5 Ideal metabolic reaction rates THINGS Appropriate atmospheric pressure DO WE Oxygen and gas exchange relies on it NEED TO Nutrients (food) SURVIVE? Chemicals for energy and cell building Includes carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, and minerals Oxygen Required for chemical reactions (fuel) 31 8 Necessary Life Functions Maintain Boundaries Keep items in correct location (blood) Movement Locomotion - Walking Movement of substances Responsiveness Regulatea Ability to sense changes and react SLIDE 1.15 32 8 Necessary Life Functions Digestion Break-down and delivery of nutrients Metabolism – chemical reactions within the body Production of energy Making body structures Excretion Elimination of waste from metabolic reactions SLIDE 1.16A 33 11  8 Necessary Life Functions Reproduction Production of future generation Growth Increasing of cell size and number Repair -damages SLIDE 1.16B 34 HOMEOSTASIS An ideal internal state the body aims to achieve The body’s effort and ability to maintain optimal functional level in a dynamic system “the body’s ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions…” (p18, Marieb, E.) Examples of when homeostasis is not being met? 35 MAINTAINING HOMEOSTASIS Communication within the body, between structures is vital for survival The body communicates primarily through neural and hormonal control systems 36 12  MAINTAINING HOMEOSTASIS Receptor Sends message to bruin Responds to changes in the environment (stimuli) Sends information to control center Control center Decision Maker Determines set point Analyzes information Determines appropriate response Effector Takes action Provides a means for response to the stimulus 37 “CYBERNETICS” the study of control of communication feedback Input Output (stressor) (reaction) Control Center 38 39 13  There are two possible results from the feedback sent from the Control Center: Depress (decrease) the stimulus/reaction Negative Feedback cold-hot Enhance (increase) the stimulus/reaction Positive Feedback - blood Clot 40 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK Most common regulation method Brings about a response opposite to the initial input (stress) thereby reducing the stress i.e.Temperature regulation Winter Cold SHIVER Warmer body body 41 FuseSchool video – Homeostasis Cognito video – Homeostasis Dr Mike video - Homeostasis 1 Dr Mike video - Homeostasis 2 42 14  POSITIVE FEEDBACK Response is in the same direction as the initial input – response is maximized Less common More difficult to control Goes to completion i.e. Birthing Process 43 STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION Chemical Level Building blocks ( DNA, carbs, proteins) Cellular Level The basic unit of life Tissue Level Organized group of cells performing the same function Organ Level Groups of tissues working for the same outcome System Level ? 44 Levels of Structural Organization Figure 1.1 45 15  2023-09-12 BASIC CHEMISTRY CHAPTER 2 1 UNDERSTAND AND DISCUSS HOW CHEMISTRY IS INVOLVED IN THE HUMAN BODY IDENTIFY TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS, CHEMICAL BONDS AND HOW THEY FUNCTION IDENTIFY THE FACTORS OF ENERGY AND EXAMPLES OF DIFFERENT TYPES RECOGNIZE COMMON ELEMENTS AND THEIR SHORT FORMS DISCUSS THE PARTICLE THEORY AND ORBITAL MODEL THEORY COMPARE ORGANIC VS INORGANIC COMPOUNDS AND THE COMMON TRAITS 2 1  2023-09-12 LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION Chemical Level Building blocks ( DNA, carbs., proteins) Cellular Level The basic unit of life Tissue Level ? Organ Level Groups of tissues working for the same outcome System Level ? 3 4 2  2023-09-12 CHEMISTRY: THE STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF A SUBSTANCE : THE WAY A SUBSTANCE CHANGES AND REACTS WITH OTHER SUBSTANCES - MERRIAM WEBSTER ON- LINE DICTIONARY BIOCHEMISTRY: THE CHEMISTRY OF LIVING MATERIAL THE CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND REACTIONS OF A PARTICULAR LIVING ORGANISM OR BIOLOGICAL SUBSTANCE - MERRIAM-WEBSTER ON-LINE DICTIONARY 5 MATTER – fill in ANYTHING THAT OCCUPIES SPACE AND HAS MASS (WEIGHT) Blank MAY BE SOLID, LIQUID OR GAS MAY BE CHANGED PHYSICALLY OR question CHEMICALLY ELEMENTS – THE FUNDAMENTAL UNITS OF MATTER SEE APPENDIX B 6 3  2023-09-12 EXAMPLES IN THE HUMAN BODY: SOLIDS: Bones Cartilage , LIQUIDS Spinal Fluid Spit GASES: CO2 , Oz 7 ENERGY “…THE ABILITY TO DO WORK OR PUT MATTER INTO MOTION” (MARIEB, KELLER 2022, P 24) HAS NO MASS DOES NOT TAKE UP SPACE MEASURED BY ITS EFFECTS ON MATTER KINETIC VS. POTENTIAL moving hasn't been released / stored Nervous System requires 8 most energy 4  2023-09-12 “ALL LIVING THINGS ARE BUILT MATTER OF MATTER, AND TO GROW AND AND FUNCTION THEY REQUIRE ENERGY A CONTINUOUS SUPPLY OF ENERGY.” – ESSENTIALS OF HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY, 13TH EDITION, P24 9 TYPES OF ENERGY CHEMICAL ENERGY: ELECTRICAL ENERGY: Nervous System MECHANICAL ENERGY: muscles RADIANT ENERGY: Sunshine travels in waves , thermal , nv , 10 5  2023-09-12 KEY PRINCIPLES ENERGY IS NEITHER CREATED OR DESTROYED Potential ↓ Y ENERGY IS CONVERTEDKinetic mechanical CONVERSIONS ARE INEFFICIENT AND ENERGY IS “LOST” DURING CONVERSION 11 Primary Storage of energy CHEMICAL ENERGY CHEMICALS STORE ENERGY IN BONDS BETWEEN CHEMICALS (ANABOLISM) ENERGY IS RELEASED BY BREAKING THE BONDS (CATABOLISM) Cats break things ENERGY CAN BE CONVERTED TO VARIOUS FORMS NERVE FOOD ADENOSINE ELECTRICAL TRI ENERGY PHOSPHATE HEAT loss 12 6  2023-09-12 CHEMICAL LEVEL THE BASIC BUILDING BLOCKS 13 ALL MATTER IS COMPOSED OF A LIMITED NUMBER OF SUBSTANCES CALLED ELEMENTS. ELEMENTS: UNIQUE SUBSTANCES THAT CANNOT BE BROKEN DOWN INTO SMALLER/SIMPLER SUBSTANCES BY ORDINARY CHEMICAL MEANS. 118 IDENTIFIED (92 IN NATURE) I.E.: OXYGEN (O) CARBON (C) IRON (FE) 14 7  2023-09-12 THE PERIODIC TABLE HTTP://WWW.PTABLE.COM/DYNAMIC PERIODIC TABLE 15 CHON 96 S C,O N , H , body 16 8  2023-09-12 17 18 9  2023-09-12 REMEMBER: MATTER – ANYTHING THAT OCCUPIES SPACE AND HAS MASS (WEIGHT) MAY BE SOLID, LIQUID OR GAS MAY BE CHANGED PHYSICALLY OR CHEMICALLY EACH ELEMENT IS AN EXAMPLE OF MATTER EACH ELEMENT IS COMPOSED OF (BASICALLY) IDENTICAL PARTS (BUILDING BLOCKS/PARTICLES) CALLED ATOMS 19 KEY TERMS ATOM: THE SMALLEST UNDIVIDABLE UNIT OF MATTER THE BUILDING BLOCKS THAT COMPOSE MOST ELEMENTS (CARBON = C) ALL ARE ELECTRICALLY NEUTRAL MOLECULE: WHEN 2 OR MORE ATOMS UNITE. I.E. OXYGEN GAS (O2) COMPOUND: WHEN TWO OR MORE DIFFERENT ATOMS BIND. I.E. WATER (H2O) 20 10  2023-09-12 ATOMS WHAT IS INSIDE EACH ATOM (SUBATOMIC PARTICLES) HELPS DEFINE AND GIVE EACH ELEMENT IT’S UNIQUE PROPERTIES. THERE ARE 3 BASIC SUBATOMIC PARTICLES PROTONS (P+) NEUTRONS (N) ELECTRONS (E-) THE COMBINATION OF THESE SUBATOMIC PARTICLES (NUMBERS, WEIGHT, INTERACTION) GIVE THE ELEMENT PROPERTIES 21 SUBATOMIC PARTICLES ⑫ # Protons its by it's self #Elections PROTONS (P+) ⑧ O POSITIVE CHARGE, HEAVY MASS (1 ATOMIC MASS UNIT=AMU) O O FOUND IN THE NUCLEUS ⑭ O O NEUTRONS (N) tor- 0000 NO CHARGE, HEAVY MASS (1 AMU) weight 0 ⑧ FOUND IN THE NUCLEUS O ① ELECTRONS (E-) O O ① NEGATIVE CHARGE, VIRTUALLY 0 MASS (0 AMU) FOUND IN THE ORBITALS OUTSIDE THE NUCLEUS EQUAL TO NUMBER OF PROTONS 22 11  2023-09-12 #Exam 23 ATOMIC NUMBER: EQUAL TO THE NUMBER OF PROTONS IT CONTAINS I.E. CARBON = 6, NITROGEN = 7 ATOMIC MASS: THE SUM OF THE MASSES OF PROTONS AND NEUTRONS IN THE NUCLEUS SUPERSCRIPT TO THE LEFT OF THE ATOMIC SYMBOL 24 12  2023-09-12 HOW MANY ELECTRONS IN: CARBON (C) 6 OXYGEN (O) g NITROGEN (N) ↑ IRON (FE) 26 25 ISOTOPES: STRUCTURAL VARIATIONS OF SOME ELEMENTS HAVE SAME NUMBER OF PROTONS AND ELECTRONS DIFFERENT NUMBER OF NEUTRONS (THIS INCREASES THE WEIGHT!) 26 13  2023-09-12 THE ORBITAL MODEL A MODEL USED TO DESCRIBE THE GENERAL LOCATION OF THE SUBATOMIC MATTER IN AN ATOM ELECTRON CLOUD: REGIONS WHERE ELECTRONS ARE MOST LIKELY TO BE FOUND DEPICTED AS LAYERS NUCLEUS: REGION WHERE PROTONS AND NEUTRONS ARE LOCATED LOCATION OF HIGHEST DENSITY 27 28 14  2023-09-12 29 THE ORBITAL MODEL: ELECTRON CLOUDS: THE AREA ELECTRONS ARE MOST LIKELY TO BE FOUND THERE ARE UP TO 7 LAYERS (SHELLS) OF CLOUDS LAYER 1 IS CLOSEST TO THE NUCLEUS AND HOLDS 2 ELECTRONS AT MOST ELECTRONS IN LAYER 1 ARE MOST STRONGLY ATTRACTED TO THE NUCLEUS (+ CHARGE) ATTRACTION DECREASES MOVING AWAY FROM THE NUCLEUS 30 15  2023-09-12 VALENCE SHELL THE OUTER MOST ELECTRON SHELL/LAYER ELECTRONS HERE DETERMINE THE CHEMICAL BEHAVIOUR OF THE ATOM IF THERE ARE 8 ELECTRONS IN A VALENCE SHELL IS IT INERT IF THERE ARE LESS THAN 8 ELECTRONS IN THIS OUTER SHELL THIS ATOM WILL TEND TO GAIN, LOSE OR SHARE ELECTRONS TO REACH A STABLE STATE THIS IS WHEN BONDS ARE FORMED!! 31 32 16  2023-09-12 CHEMICAL REACTIONS REACTIONS THAT OCCUR WHEN ATOMS COMBINE OR SEPARATE (DISSOCIATE) FROM OTHER ATOMS. WHEN ATOMS “UNITE” CHEMICAL BONDS ARE FORMED ELECTRONS PLAY A ROLE IN THE FORMATION OF BONDS! 33 RECALL: MOLECULE: WHEN 2 OR MORE ATOMS UNITE. I.E. OXYGEN GAS (O2) COMPOUND: WHEN TWO OR MORE DIFFERENT ATOMS BIND. I.E. WATER (H2O) 34 17  2023-09-12 PRINICPLES OF BONDS: ELEMENTS AND MOLECULES INTERACT TO FORM A STABLE COMPOUND OPPOSITES ATTRACT… BONDS FORM BETWEEN MOLECULES, STORING ENERGY. WHEN THE BONDS ARE BROKEN ENERGY IS RELEASED. FORMING COMPOUNDS CHANGES THE PROPERTIES 35 CHEMICAL REACTIVITY: RULE OF EIGHTS: ATOMS WILL INTERACT IN A WAY THAT RESULTS IN 8 ELECTRONS IN THEIR VALENCE SHELL. (A FULL VALENCE SHELL) EXCEPTION: THE FIRST ELECTRON SHELL (CLOSEST TO THE NUCLEUS) HAS ROOM FOR 2 ELECTRONS ONLY, THUS IT IS FULL WITH 2 ELECTRONS 36 18  2023-09-12 IONIC BONDS Something a Charge with Y IONIC BONDS A BOND THAT FORMS BETWEEN TWO MOLECULES WHEN ONE MOLECULE DONATES AN ELECTRON TO ANOTHER. DONATES = COMPLETELY TRANSFERS ELECTRON(S) FROM ONE ATOM TO ANOTHER THIS RESULTS IN UNEQUAL CHARGES ON EACH ATOM THE RESULTING CHARGED PARTICLES ARE CALLED IONS 37 IONS REMEMBER: ATOMS ARE NORMALLY ELECTRICALLY NEUTRAL (PROTONS = ELECTRONS) DURING BONDING ELECTRONS MAY BE GAINED OR LOST, THIS LEAVES ATOMS WITH AN ELECTRICAL CHARGE IT MAY BE POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE DEPENDING ON IF IT GAVE AWAY OR ACCEPTED AN ELECTRON. IONS = PARTICLES WITH AN ELECTRICAL CHARGE 38 19  2023-09-12 FIGURE 2.6 FORMATION OF AN IONIC Slide 1 BOND. * + – Na Cl Na Cl Sodium atom (Na) Chlorine atom (Cl) Sodium ion (Na+) Chloride ion (Cl–) (11p+; 12n0; 11e–) (17p+; 18n0; 17e–) Sodium chloride (NaCl) 39 WHEN AN ATOM GIVES AWAY AN ELECTRON (NEGATIVE CHARGE) IT THEN IS LEFT WITH MORE PROTONS THEREFORE HAS A POSITIVE CHARGE (+). THIS IS A CATION. WHEN AN ATOM ACCEPTS AN ELECTRON IT RESULTS IN AN EXTRA ELECTRON AND THUS HAS A NEGATIVE CHARGE BECAUSE OPPOSITES ATTRACT THESE TWO ATOMS STAY CLOSE TOGETHER = IONIC BOND 40 20  2023-09-12 COVALENT BONDS THE SHARING OF ELECTRONS TO FORM A STABLE STATE. ELECTRONS CAN BE SHARED IN A WAY THAT EACH ATOM IS ABLE TO FILL ITS VALENCE SHELL AT LEAST SOME OF THE TIME. 2 H SHARE ELECTRONS TO BECOME H2 THE SHARING MAY BE EQUAL BETWEEN ELEMENTS NON-POLAR OR THE SHARING MAY BE UNEQUAL = POLAR 41 42 21  2023-09-12 43 POLAR VS. NON-POLAR 44 22  2023-09-12 HYDROGEN BONDS WEAK BOND BETWEEN A HYDROGEN AND 2 ELECTRON HUNGRY ELEMENTS HYDROGEN IS THE BRIDGE BETWEEN THE TWO PLAYS A KEY ROLE WITHIN THE BODY! 45 46 23  2023-09-12 Stoped here CHEMICAL REACTIONS THE MAKING OR BREAKING OF BONDS BETWEEN ATOMS TOTAL NUMBER OF ATOMS REMAIN THE SAME BUT MAY APPEAR IN NEW COMBINATIONS 3 COMMON PATTERNS: SYNTHESIS DECOMPOSITION EXCHANGE 47 PATTERNS OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS: SYNTHESIS: TWO OR MORE MOLECULES COMBINE TO FORM A LARGER MORE COMPLEX COMPOUND A + B → AB 48 24  2023-09-12 PATTERNS OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS: DECOMPOSITION WHEN A MOLECULE IS BROKEN DOWN INTO SMALLER PARTS BONDS ARE BROKEN AND ENERGY IS RELEASED. AB → A + B 49 PATTERNS OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS: EXCHANGE BONDS ARE BOTH BROKEN AND MADE WHILE A SWITCH OCCURS BETWEEN MOLECULE PARTS AB + C → AC + B AB + CD → AD + CB 50 25  2023-09-12 FACTORS INFLUENCING REACTIONS: METHODS THAT INCREASE THE COLLISION OF MOLECULES (SPEED AND STRENGTH) INCREASE REACTIONS TEMPERATURE CONCENTRATION OF PARTICLES PARTICLE SIZE PRESENCE OF A CATALYST 51 A LITTLE BIT OF …. BIOCHEMISTRY 52 26  2023-09-12 COMPOUNDS INORGANIC ORGANIC NO CARBON CARBON-CONTAINING SMALL LARGE SIMPLE COMPLEX FEW EXCEPTIONS: COVALENT BONDING (CARBON DIOXIDE GAS (CO2) AND CARBON MONOXIDE (CO) 53 INORGANIC COMPOUNDS HAVE NO CARBON PRESENT * OFTEN SMALL AND SIMPLE COMPOUNDS NECESSARY FOR LIFE I.E. WATER, SALTS, SOME ACIDS AND BASES 54 27  2023-09-12 INORGANIC COMPOUND: WATER WATER MOST ABUNDANT INORGANIC COMPOUND IN THE BODY MAKES UP 2/3 OF BODY WEIGHT HAS MANY VITAL FUNCTIONS 55 INORGANIC COMPOUNDS WATER (H2O) FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES HIGH HEAT CAPACITY POLARITY/SOLVENT PROPERTIES CHEMICAL REACTIVITY LUBRICANT SHOCK ABSORBER 56 28  2023-09-12 INORGANIC COMPOUNDS: SALTS SALTS COMPOUNDS THAT BOND BY DONATING OR ACCEPTING ELECTRONS (IONS) NACL → NA+ + CL¯ CATIONS: POSITIVELY CHARGED IONS ANIONS: NEGATIVELY CHARGED IONS 57 INORGANIC COMPOUNDS MANY ACIDS AND BASES ACIDS: RELEASES H+ IN SOLUTION PROTON DONATOR I.E. HCL → H+ + CL¯ STRONG: DIVIDE (IONIZE) ALMOST COMPLETELY IN SOLUTION, RELEASE LOTS OF PROTONS (H+) WEAK: DIVIDE (IONIZE) MINIMALLY IN SOLUTION, RELEASE ONLY FEW PROTONS IN SOLUTION INVOLVE H+ (HYDROGEN ION, ACID) 58 29  2023-09-12 INORGANIC COMPOUNDS BASES: RELEASES OH- IN SOLUTION PROTON ACCEPTOR DISSOCIATE IN WATER I.E. NAOH → NA+ + OH¯ STRONG: ? WEAK: ? INVOLVE OH- (HYDROXYL ION, BASE) 59 PH SCALE THE RELATIVE CONCENTRATION OF HYDROGEN (H+) ACID AND HYDROXYL (OH-) BASE IN SOLUTION BUFFERS CHEMICALS THAT CAN REGULATE PH CHANGE 60 30  2023-09-12 PH SCALE MEASURES THE AMOUNT OF H+ OR OH- IN SOLUTION EACH SUCCESSIVE CHANGE OF 1 PH UNIT REPRESENTS A TENFOLD CHANGE IN HYDROGEN ION CONCENTRATION SCALE OF 0 TO 14 7 IS MID-POINT = [H+] = [OH-] = NEUTRAL 0 – 6.9 = ACIDIC (MORE H+ THAN OH- IN SOLUTION) 7.1 – 14 = BASIC (AKA ALKALINE) 61 WHY DO WE CARE? LIVING CELLS ARE VERY SENSITIVE TO PH THE BODY WORKS HARD TO KEEP A GOOD BALANCE (HOMEOSTASIS). BUFFERS: CHEMICAL METHODS IN THE BODY THAT WORK TO MAINTAIN A GOOD PH BALANCE 62 31  2023-09-12 ORGANIC COMPOUNDS SUBSTANCES THAT CONTAIN CARBON LARGE, COVALENTLY BONDED CARBOHYDRATES LIPIDS PROTEINS NUCLEIC ACIDS 63 ORGANIC COMPOUNDS CARBOHYDRATES CONTAIN CARBON (C), HYDROGEN (H), OXYGEN (O) INCLUDE SUGARS AND STARCHES CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR SIZE PROVIDE EASILY USABLE ENERGY ENERGY NOT USED IS STORED 64 32  2023-09-12 ORGANIC COMPOUNDS LIPIDS A.K.A. FATS INSOLUBLE IN WATER DISSOLVE IN OTHER LIPIDS AND INORGANIC SOLVENTS I.E. TRIGLYCERIDES, STEROIDS, PHOSPHOLIPIDS 65 LIPIDS: TRIGLYCERIDES MOST ABUNDANT SOURCE OF USABLE ENERGY MOST CONCENTRATED 2 BUILDING BLOCKS: FATTY ACIDS AND GLYCEROL STORED IN FAT DEPOSITS, HELP INSULATE AND PROTECT 66 33  2023-09-12 LIPIDS: PHOSPHOLIPIDS ALWAYS CONTAIN A PHOSPHORUS (P) GLYCEROL PLUS 2 FATTY ACID CHAINS AND A PHOSPHORUS- CONTAINING GROUP PHOSPHOROUS REGION (HEAD) HAS AN ELECTRICAL CHARGE FATTY ACID REGION (TAIL) HAS NO CHARGE 67 LIPIDS: STEROIDS FLAT MOLECULES FOUR INTERLOCKING RINGS FAT SOLUBLE USED TO FORM VITAMIN D, HORMONES, AND BILE SALTS 68 34  2023-09-12 ORGANIC COMPOUNDS PROTEINS MADE OF SMALL BUILDING BLOCKS – AMINO ACIDS= AMINE GROUP (NH2) AND ACID GROUP (COOH) MANY VARIED FUNCTIONS – BUILDING BLOCKS (STRUCTURAL PROTEINS), CELL FUNCTIONS (FUNCTIONAL PROTEINS) P.51, TABLE 2.6 ENZYMES 69 PROTEINS: ENZYMES ACTS AS A CATALYST IN THE BODY INCREASES THE RATE OF A REACTION WITHOUT BECOMING A PART OF THE PRODUCT RE-USABLE 70 35  2023-09-12 ORGANIC COMPOUNDS NUCLEIC ACIDS MAKE UP GENES (BLUEPRINTS FOR LIFE) COMPOSED OF CARBON, OXYGEN, HYDROGEN, NITROGEN, PHOSPHORUS ATOMS. COMPLEX BUILDING BLOCKS TWO MAJOR KINDS DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA) RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA) 71 DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA) GENETIC MATERIAL FOUND IN CELL NUCLEUS. LONG, COILED, DOUBLE CHAIN BASES: A AND T,G AND C SUGAR: DEOXYRIBOSE HYDROGEN BONDS HOLD CHAIN TOGETHER ROLES: 1) REPLICATE ITSELF BEFORE CELL DIVISION 2) PROVIDE INSTRUCTION FOR BUILDING EVERY PROTEIN 72 36  2023-09-12 IMPORTANT ORGANIC COMPOUNDS Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Organized by complimentary bases to form double helix Replicates before cell division Provides instruction for every protein in the body Figure 2.17c 73 RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA) MOSTLY OUTSIDE THE NUCLEUS CARRIES OUT ORDERS OF DNA TAKES CODED INFORMATION TRANSFORMS FOR “TRANSPORT” THEN DECODES INSTRUCTIONS FOR “FACTORY WORKERS” SINGLE STRAND BASES: A AND U, G AND C SUGAR: RIBOSE THREE VARIETIES: MESSENGER (MRNA), RIBOSOMAL (RRNA) AND TRANSFER (TRNA) 74 37  2023-09-12 ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE ATP PROVIDES A CHEMICAL FORM OF ENERGY USABLE BY ALL BODY CELLS NECESSARY FOR LIFE PROCESSES ENERGY IS STORED IN BONDS OF ATP 75 HOW ATP DRIVES CELLULAR WORK Figure 2.19 76 38  2023-09-20 THE CELL Chapter 3 1 Goals of Lesson Name and describe the areas & structures of a general cell and their functions Discuss the presence of various structures in different cell types (cell diversity) and the purpose of the diversity Explain the methods used to move items into and out of cells Discuss the process of protein synthesis 2 1  2023-09-20 The Generalized Cell 3 3 Main regions of The Generalized Cell Plasma Membrane Cytoplasm Nucleus 4 2  2023-09-20 5 The Nucleus Control Center Contains “necessary for life” information (DNA) Its purpose is to direct all cellular metabolism and cell replication Nucle = kernel Three main regions: Nuclear envelope Nucleoli Chromatin 6 3  2023-09-20 Three main regions of the Nucleus Nuclear Envelope (membrane): Double membrane barrier, fused at points to form nuclear pores Semi-permeable, large pores increase permeability Encloses jelly-like substance (nucleoplasm) that suspends other nuclear elements. 7 Nucleoli: Sites for ribosome assembly Small, dark staining, round bodies Chromatin: DNA + Protein Loose network of bumpy threads Scattered in the nucleus until cell division 8 4  2023-09-20 9 10 5  2023-09-20 PLASMA MEMBRANE Barrier for cell contents – semi- permeable Double phospholipid layer Hydrophilic heads (water lovers) Hydrophobic tails (water haters) Other materials in plasma membrane Protein Cholesterol Glycoproteins 11 12 6  2023-09-20 Plasma Membrane Features: Proteins: Span the membrane: involved in transport Cluster to form channels (pores) Carriers bind to items and move it through the membrane 13 Plasma Membrane Features: Proteins: Protrude from the surface: May be receptors for hormone or other chemical messengers May be binding sites for anchoring the cell to fibers or other structures (inside or out) 14 7  2023-09-20 Plasma Membrane Features: Cholesterol: Interwoven throughout the membrane aiding in stabilization Helps keep the membrane fluid and flexible Glycoprotein: Sugar molecules attached to proteins towards extracellular space Make cell surfaces fuzzy, sticky, sugar-rich Many roles – identification, Blood type, receptors, cell-to-cell recognition and interactions 15 Plasma Membrane Features: Some plasma membranes have specialized extensions. Microvilli: Tiny, finger-like extensions that project from exposed cell surface. Increase cell surface area thus aid in absorption Cilia: Whip-like cellular extensions that move substances along the cell surface Flagella: Longer projection, used for propulsion 16 8  2023-09-20 17 Sticking Together! Cells are often bound together in 3 ways: 1) Glycoproteins act as adhesive 2) Wavy contours of adjacent cells “fit” together 3)Membrane Junctions: Tight junctions: Desmosomes Gap junctions 18 9  2023-09-20 Membrane Junction type is KEY for effective roles and performance. Tight Junction: Impermeable, make leak-proof sheets of cells Fuse together like zipper Desmosomes: Anchors to prevent cells from moving apart/separating Link like buttons or train links Gap Junction: Neighbouring cells connected by hollow protein cylinders that span the width of both membranes 19 20 10  2023-09-20 Membrane Junctions 21 INSIDE THE CELL… 22 11  2023-09-20 23 THE CYTOPLASM Gel like filling Working area of the cell Contains 3 major elements; Cytosol Organelles Inclusions (inclusion bodies) 24 12  2023-09-20 THE CYTOPLASM Cytosol: semitransparent fluid, suspends other elements Inclusions: temporary structures for storage, varies with cell role Organelles: permanent, specialized “small organs” membrane bound metabolic machinery 25 Cytoplasmic Organelles Mitochondrion (-ia) Lysosomes Endoplasmic Peroxisomes Reticulum Lysosomes Smooth Centrioles Rough Ribosomes Golgi bodies (apparatus) 26 13  2023-09-20 27 Cytoplasmic Organelles Mitochondria: Enzymes within react with oxygen to produce ATP (energy) and heat Endoplasmic Reticulum: Fluid filled canal system for transport & production smooth: no ribosomes present, lipid metabolism & detoxification rough: ribosomes present, cell membrane factory 28 14  2023-09-20 29 Cytoplasm Organelles Ribosomes: site of protein synthesis Golgi apparatus: modify, package and distribute cellular proteins (from ER) Lysosomes: membranous sacs of digestive enzymes. 30 15  2023-09-20 More Cytoplasmic Organelles  Peroxisomes  Membranous sacs of oxidase enzymes  Detoxify harmful substances  Break down free radicals (highly reactive chemicals)  Replicate by pinching in half Free radicals  Highly reactive chemicals with unpaired electrons that can scramble the structure of proteins & nucleic acids if allowed to accumulate 31 More Cytoplasmic Organelles  Centrioles  Paired, rod-shaped bodies made of microtubules  Involved in cell division and generating microtubules 32 16  2023-09-20 Cytoplasmic Organelles Figure 3.4 33 Steps of Production and Distribution within a cell Request for product Recipe found in coded DNA sequence in nucleus Change to understandable format (details later) Recipe instructions sent to Ribosome(s) Ribosome(s) follow directions and build product (protein) in Endoplasmic Reticulum or cytoplasm 34 17  2023-09-20 Product migrates to the ER for transport and modifications (shape change, additions) Packaged in tiny sac = transport vesicle Transport vesicle migrates to and fuses with Golgi Apparatus Modification, Packaging and distribution completed here Final Product distributed in specialized sac based on destination 35 36 18  2023-09-20 Packaging products: Figure 3.5 Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings 37 38 19  2023-09-20 CYTOSKELETON Elaborate network of protein structures Found throughout the cytoplasm An internal framework Determines cell shape Provides support and machinery for cell Contains: Microtubules, Intermediate filaments, Microfilaments, 39 40 20  2023-09-20 41 42 21  2023-09-20 The Life of a cell https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wJyUtbn0O5Y 43 CELL DIVERSITY 44 22  2023-09-20 Cell Specialists 1) Cells that connect body parts (connective) 2) Cells that cover and line organs (epithelial) 3) Cells that move organs and body (Skeletal and smooth muscle) 45 1) Cells that store nutrients (fat cells) 2) Cells that fight disease (macrophages) 3) Cells that gather information and control function (nerve cells) 4) Cells of reproduction (Oocytes & sperm) 46 23  2023-09-20 47 CELL PHYSIOLOGY 48 24  2023-09-20 CELL PHYSIOLOGY The study of how the cell functions. Most cells can perform (or aid to perform) the following: Metabolism Growth Food digestion Waste disposal Reproduction 49 CELL PHYSIOLOGY ALSO… Membrane Transport Protein Synthesis Cell Division Stimuli Response (irritability) Locomotion 50 25  2023-09-20 Today Focus on: Membrane Transport Protein Synthesis Cell Division (minimal) 51 Necessary Life Function: MAINTAIN BOUNDARIES 52 26  2023-09-20 Compartments  Intracellular compartment –refers to the inside of the cell  Extra-cellular compartment –refers to anything that is outside of the cell  In humans there are at least 2 extra-cellular compartments  Interstitial – which lies around the cell  Intravascular –in the vessels 53 Intracellular Fluid: The nucleoplasm and cytosol Contains small amounts of gases, nutrients, and salts dissolved in water Interstitial Fluid: Fluid that continually bathes the exterior of our cells Contains thousands of ingredients Including nutrients (vitamins, amino acids), hormones, neurotransmitters, salts and waste 54 27  2023-09-20 PLASMA MEMBRANE Recall the plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer contains proteins, glycoproteins and cholesterol acts as a barrier, semi-permeable 55 SELECTIVE PERMEABILITY A barrier that allows some substances to pass through while excluding others i.e. allows nutrients to enter the cell but keeps many undesirable substances out. Valuable proteins and cell components are kept IN the cell while wastes are allowed to exit through the membrane 56 28  2023-09-20 MEMBRANE TRANSPORT PASSIVE MEMBRANE TRANSPORT: Substances move across the membrane without the expenditure of energy. i.e. diffusion and filtration ACTIVE MEMBRANE TRANSPORT: The use of energy to move substances across the cell membrane i.e. active transport and vesicular transport 57 PASSIVE TRANSPORT Diffusion : Movement of particles (solutes) from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration 58 29  2023-09-20 Recall Solution: Homogeneous mixture of two or more components Solvent: The substance present in the largest amount, often the dissolving medium (water) Solute: Substance(s) present in smaller amounts 59 60 30  2023-09-20 PASSIVE TRANSPORT SIMPLE DIFFUSION Unassisted movement (diffusion) of solutes through a semi-permeable membrane (plasma membrane). Lipid soluble molecules (fats, oxygen, carbon dioxide) Small molecules able to pass through membrane pores (small ions i.e. Chloride ion) 61 PASSIVE TRANSPORT Osmosis: The diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane. In the plasma membrane water passes through special pores (aquaporins) created by membrane proteins, thus is occurring all the time (down concentration gradient!) 62 31  2023-09-20 PASSIVE TRANSPORT Facilitated Diffusion: Using protein carriers or channels to move substances down their concentration gradient 63 PASSIVE TRANSPORT Filtration When water and solutes are pushed through a membrane (i.e. capillary wall) by an increase in pressure (hydrostatic pressure) Not very selective – large molecules (blood cells and proteins) cannot fit 64 32  2023-09-20 65 MEMBRANE TRANSPORT PASSIVE MEMBRANE TRANSPORT: Substances move across the membrane without the expenditure of energy. i.e. diffusion and filtration ACTIVE MEMBRANE TRANSPORT: The use of energy (ATP) to move substances across the cell membrane i.e. active transport and vesicular transport 66 33  2023-09-20 ACTIVE MEMBRANE TRANSPORT ENERGY INPUT REQUIRED BECAUSE: Molecule is too large Lack of special protein carrier Not fat soluble Moving against concentration gradient 67 ACTIVE TRANSPORT Active transport/Solute Pumping The use of a protein carrier and energy to move a substance across a membrane Often against a gradient (concentration or electrical) – thus the need for an input of energy 68 34  2023-09-20 69 ACTIVE TRANSPORT Sodium-Potassium Pump Simultaneously moves sodium ions out and potassium ions into the cell. (fig 3.11) 70 35  2023-09-20 ACTIVE TRANSPORT Bulk (Vesicular) Transport Exocytosis: “Condition of out of the cell” Actively secrets products via vesicles moves products OUT of cell 71 72 36  2023-09-20 73 ACTIVE TRANSPORT Bulk (Vesicular) Transport Endocytosis: “Condition of into the cell” Take in or engulf extracellular substances. Need ATP to enclose extracellular substances in a small vesicle 74 37  2023-09-20 75 ACTIVE TRANSPORT Endocytosis: vesicle formed around substances. detaches from wall moves into cytoplasm often fuses with lysosomes that digest contents and releases them into cytosol OR digestion occurs then moves to wall and expels via exocytosis 76 38  2023-09-20 77 ENDOCYTOSIS Pinocytosis: “cell drinking” Cell “gulps” droplet of extracellular fluid Plasma membrane indents to form a pit Edges fuse around the droplet (often filled with dissolved proteins or fats from GI tract) Used often by most cells especially impt in cells whose function is absorption 78 39  2023-09-20 ENDOCYTOSIS Phagocytosis: “cell eating” Often used with large particles (bacteria, dead body cells) Cytoplasmic extensions (pseudopods) separate the target from external environment Protective mechanism (rather than for obtaining nutrients) 79 ENDOCYTOSIS Receptor Mediated: Main mechanism for uptake of specific substances Receptor proteins on the plasma membrane bind to specific substances Receptors and attached target molecules are internalized via a vesicle 80 40  2023-09-20 CELL DIVISION 81 CELL LIFE CYCLE 2 major phases: Interphase: Cell growth and usual metabolic activities Very active and longer phase Cell Division: When cell replicates itself 82 41  2023-09-20 CELL DIVISION A complex series of events The purpose is to produce identical cells for growth and repair 83 CELL DIVISION DNA strand separates and replicates (during interphase) MITOSIS: division of the nucleus CYTOKINESIS: division of cytoplasm See Page 81-85 in text! 84 42  2023-09-20 85 Preparing for CELL DIVISION During Interphase: Trigger (unknown) tells DNA to uncoil and separate into its 2 nucleotide chains Each chain then acts as a template to build a new strand. Remember the new strand will be a complement of the “old” strand Result is 2 identical double helix DNA molecules 86 43  2023-09-20 CELL DIVISION 2 EVENTS: Mitosis: The division of the nucleus Cytokinesis: The division of the cytoplasm 87 88 44  2023-09-20 CELL DIVISION At the end of the process: 2 genetically identical daughter cells exist Each is smaller and has less cytoplasm than the original (mother) Each daughter cells grow and carry out normal cell activities until it is their turn to divide 89 PROTEIN SYNTHESIS 90 45  2023-09-20 Recall Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) Deoxyribose sugar and phosphate make the “side rails” of the ladder Each of these nucleotides also contain a a nitrogen-containing base. Bases are: Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), Thymine (T), and Uracil (U) 91 92 46  2023-09-20 DNA DNA is the master blueprint for all protein synthesis Contains all genetic material to build an organism and control the growth and development Each segment of DNA carries the directions for building 1 protein of the body Genetic material is stored in a “coded” form 93 Protein Synthesis Gene – A DNA segment that carries a blueprint for building one protein of the organism Proteins are key substances for all aspects of cell life i.e. Building materials for cells and enzymes For “safety” the information is stored in a coded and scrambled format! Need a decoder! - RNA 94 47  2023-09-20 RNA Ribonucleic Acid Single stranded Ribose sugar (not deoxyribose as in DNA) Uracil base (replaces Thymine) Act to decode the DNA message and carry it to the production area! 95 RNA 3 types of RNA (based on function) 1)Transfer RNA (tRNA) 2) Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) 3) Messenger RNA (mRNA) 96 48  2023-09-20 PROTEIN SYNTHESIS Two major phases Transcription: the transfer of information from DNA format to the complementary format of mRNA Occurs in the nucleus Translation: the information in base sequence is translated into amino acid sequence (proteins) in the cytoplasm 97 98 49  2023-09-20 99 Multiple Individual Cells work together for the same purpose and form the next level of structure: TISSUES 100 50  2023-09-20 101 51