Lesson 1: Introduction to Methods of Research PDF

Lesson 1: Introduction to Methods of Research 1.1. What is research? 1.2. What are the uses of research? 1.3. What is the role of research in development? 1.4. Uses and importance of research in development 1.5. The Functions of Research in Planning and Decision- Making 1.6. Research as a Scientifi...

Lesson 1: Introduction to Methods of Research 1.1. What is research? 1.2. What are the uses of research? 1.3. What is the role of research in development? 1.4. Uses and importance of research in development 1.5. The Functions of Research in Planning and Decision- Making 1.6. Research as a Scientific Inquiry 1.7. Classifications of Research 1.8. The Research Process 1.1. What is research? Significant difference between everyday use of the term and the scientific or academic use. The following the definition of research from different sources: A. From the Merriam-Webster dictionary: 1: careful or diligent search 2: studious inquiry or examination; especially: investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws 3: the collecting of information about a particular subject B. Booth, Columb & Williams, “The Craft of Research”: 1. “Research is gathering information that answers a question and so solves a problem.” A voyage of discovery; A journey; An attitude; An experience; A method of critical thinking; A careful critical enquiry in seeking facts for principles 2. An art of scientific investigation Scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic Process of arriving at dependable solutions to problems through the planned and systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of data 3. A systematized effort to gain new knowledge; A movement from the known to the unknown c. Oxford English Dictionary: 1. “the act of searching (closely and carefully) for or after a specified thing or person” 2. “a search or investigation directed to the discovery of some fact by careful consideration or study of a subject; a course of critical or scientific inquiry” d. Adanza, Estrella G., Bermudo, Pedrito Jose V., Rasonable, Marietta B. Methods of Research: A PRIMER. 2009  Research, using the simplest definition, is looking for an answer to a query using the most logical and valid methods. Must give new knowledge for what is known in the past, may not be applicable to situations that are current at the times or what is contemporary. What is not Research? The term research often is used for things, on their own at least, are not true research: Going to the library to look up something (e.g., a literature search) Finding facts to prove something “How I did it…” papers Publications that use data “information gathering” Searching for data when writing an essay Compiling facts in written form Research and its general definition/criteria Systematic process of collecting and analyzing data or information in order to increase understanding of a phenomenon. Inquiry process Formal process of problem solving Set of procedures or steps Originates with a question or problem Statement of a goal and a specific plan of research approach Often breaks down the overall problem into manageable sub-problems Requires the Collection, Interpretation, and Analysis of data Often is an iterative process Research builds on previous research Reflected in the ‘literature review’ section Why undertake Research? To investigate some existing situation or problem. To provide solutions to a problem. To explore and analyse more general issues. To construct or create a new procedure or system. To explain a new phenomenon. To generate new knowledge. A combination of two or more of any of the above. 1.2. What are the uses of research? Research is basic and it is paramount important in any development at all times. Connecting research and practice should be more of a two-way street than is implied in research-to-practice approaches.  Education Engineering Business Science New Areas According to Zarah on her online article entitled “7 Reasons Why Research Is Important” updated last March 2020, the main purpose of research is to inform action, to prove a theory, and contribute to developing knowledge in a field or study. The article also highlighted the significance of research with the following points:  A Tool for Building Knowledge and for Facilitating Learning  Means to Understand Various Issues and Increase Public Awareness  An Aid to Business Success  A Way to Prove Lies and to Support Truths  Means to Find, Gauge, and Seize Opportunities  A Seed to Love Reading, Writing, Analyzing, and Sharing Valuable Information  Nourishment and Exercise for the Mind Figure 1: Usage & Attitude Research: Understanding buyer behaviors, preferences and unmet needs B2B buyers typically complete around 60% of the purchase process before engaging with suppliers, and around 90% of purchasing decisions are made subconsciously, based on emotion rather than logic. Usage and attitude research is crucial in understanding the path-to-purchase and what drives buyers to choose the products and brands that they do. Source: B2B International. (2020, January 29). Usage & attitude research | U&A studies | B2B international. https://www.b2binternational.com/what-we-do/markets/usage-attitude-research/ 1.3. What is the role of research in development? The role of research and development performs a number of highly important part within an organization. They are responsible for research, planning, and implementing new programs and protocols into their company or organization and overseeing the development of new products. R&D impacts society through its development of new knowledge, which generates new markets and new wage-earning opportunities. What's more, not only does R&D lead to innovations, it also helps companies develop the means they need to imitate creating and using the new innovations. Figure 2: Knowledge flow in collaborative innovation of supply chain system Source: Knowledge flow in collaborative innovation of supply chain system. (2014, August 4). ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Knowledge-flow-in-collaborative-innovation-of-supply-chain- system_fig2_269926854 Supply chain management systems are integrated partnerships among all links in the flow of goods and services to the customer. They are created for the purpose of improving quality, reducing costs and achieving competitive advantage in a world where lean manufacturing and specialization force companies to rely on one another for valuable productive activities. All supply chain activities, including planning, sourcing, producing, delivering and providing for returns, are handled collaboratively within an integrated supply chain to ensure the maximum use of shared resources. 1.4. Uses and importance of research in development Why is research important? Formal research can guard against the dangers of casual inquiry Fundamental tendency of people to Accept what we hear when presented as facts Predict future events based on causality Accept tradition as fact Accept authority Inaccurate observation Overgeneralizations Selective observation  Formal research can also guard against specific faults of the researcher Opinions about the way things should be Applications of the misconceptions Careless or faulty methods and observations Ego involvement Example from medical research Most importantly formal research is important also in providing a solid foundation for the… Discovery and creation of knowledge Theory building Testing, confirmation, revision, refutation of knowledge or theory Investigation of a problem for local decision making Advance a discipline or field Leads to improvements and advancements Promotion and tenure Research grants 1.5. The Functions of Research in Planning and Decision- Making Planning Planning is an intellectual activity directed toward anticipating, predicting, and handling change. The output is the recommended course of action to deal with probable future developments. Planning helps in risk management; i.e., a manager can anticipate problems and how to deal with them rather than be surprised by them (dealing with problems proactively rather than reactively). Planning also creates a sense of mission which allows a manager to motivate and measure the performance of people under him. Planning bridges the gap between where an organization is and where it wants to be in the future. Decision Making Decision-making is the process of evaluating the alternatives and choosing a course of action in order to solve a problem. Decisions have five characteristics Futurity - how long will the decision commit the organization? If the commitment is quite long, then the decision should be moved up to higher levels. Reversibility - how fast can a decision be reversed and its consequences resolved? If the decision would be hard to reverse, it should be moved up to higher levels. Impact - are other areas or activities affected by the decision? If the decision would have wide impact, it should be deferred to a higher level.  Quality - are social, human, ethical, and other values involved in the decision? If many qualitative factors are involved, move the decision to a higher level. Periodicity – how often is the decision made? Rare decisions should be made at higher levels. Decisions should be made at a high enough level where full consideration of all activities and objects affected by the decision can be given, but as close to the scene of action as possible. It may be helpful to look at the points where the decision can be made and where it should be made. If a large gap exists between the points or an excessive number of people are involved, then possibly personalities and their preferences are playing a major role. Source: Karl R. Van Tassel, "Managing Research and Development,” Research Management 8 (3), 1965, p. 148. Ham and Hill (1993) argue that the study of decision-making should concentrate on analyzing three areas: - the process by which decisions are made; the distribution of power; and the assumptive worlds of key participants in the decision-making process. In terms of the process, Palmer and Short (1994) argue that decision-making is often characterized by a number of stages; and R&D can play a part at each stage (see also Rist 1996). For example, R&D can be used at the problem identification and agenda setting stage; in the subsequent phase of deciding on the course of action to be adopted; and at the monitoring and evaluation stage, which provides opportunities for program fine-tuning and adjustment to changing circumstances. Robinson (1998) has argued that there are a variety of decision-making processes, which can incorporate R&D very differently. For example, pragmatic decision-making characterized by no systematic consultation or research (although R&D may be used in an ad hoc way to support one stance or denigrate another) is contrasted by Robinson with other decision-making processes, including the systematic investigation of existing R&D (and even commissioning of more). Many of the decision-makers consulted during the empirical investigations identified the complex, changing and time-pressured nature of their operating environment as an important factor in not directly considering R&D evidence before taking decisions. The timeframes of research were seen to outlast those of policy-making, so that results were often ‘too late’. Relatedly, there had been substantial staff turnover, reducing the impact of accumulated knowledge, skills and attitudes (Selby Smith et al 1998). 1.6. Research as a Scientific Inquiry Knowledge acquisition gained  through reasoning  through intuition  but most importantly through the use of appropriate methods Basic Elements of Research  Empiricism: the notion that inquiry is conducted through observation and knowledge verified through evidence Determinism: the notion that events occur according to regular laws and causes. The goal of research is to discover Skepticism: the notion that any proposition is open to analysis and critique Principles of Parsimony: Phenomenon should be explained in the most economical way possible Generality: More problematic in social & behavioral science than natural science The Scientific Method: these are the following steps in scientific method 1. Choose a question to investigate 2. Identify a hypothesis related to the question 3. Make testable predictions in the hypothesis 4. Design an experiment to answer hypothesis question 5. Collect data in experiment 6. Determine results and assess their validity 7. Determine if results support or refute your hypothesis Academic Research In academic research, you must not only answer a question, but you must find something new and interesting Each community has a cumulative tradition with a set of interesting questions, tools and methods, practices, a style and language for writing up the research Research is a conversation and ongoing social activity You need critical and careful reading of published research to learn what the community already knows to fit your work into the community to be prepared for your own work to be evaluated Key Components of a Research 1. A question of interest (research question) 2. A claim (contribution) 3. Evidence 4. Argument (links evidence to claim) To further explain the key components of research 1. Research question  Every piece of research should address a question of interest to the community  Each community has traditional questions:  What happens? Why does it happen? How should one do something? What something should one do?  Many questions fit into an on-going agenda,  Data mining foundations – mining sequential data; high-performance implementations of data mining algorithms, etc.   Mining emerging data - e-commerce, web search data, moving object data, data from sensor networks  See a recent Conference Call for Papers 2. A claim  Every piece of research makes a claim (the “contribution”) answering a research question  Claims can be very diverse among fields and within fields Eg. for a “what happens” question - when using weak concurrency control, how often is the data corrupted Eg. for a “ why something happens” - what factors lead to project success in open-source development Eg. for a “better way to do something” - modifying algorithm X in a particular way improves its performance (speed, accuracy) Eg. for a “better something to do” - our system allows users to see the model of their skills kept in a teaching system 3. Evidence You must back up the claim with evidence, e.g.  Empirical evaluation of a machine learning algorithm to evaluate its accuracy  Analysis of the computational complexity of an algorithm  A mathematical proof to show that some process/algorithm has desired properties  A prototype implementation to show that a system can be built to achieve the claimed functionality  A simulation model which is executed and analyzed to show certain properties  Measurements of a running system to show it has good performance  Observations of behavior in an organization to show what is happening Various research methods, each defined by the sort of evidence that it can produce  each community has its own standards of quality and reasonableness 4. Argument  You should show that the evidence you offer supports the claim you make  It’s essential that you deal with natural or obvious objections to the correctness or importance of the work  that is, you must think like your readers, and anticipate their reactions  In systems work, this is often called an “evaluation” of the design Qualities of a Good Research 1. Systematic: Reject the use of guessing & intuition, but does not rule out creative thinking 2. Controlled: Variables are identified & controlled, wherever possible  3. Logical: Guided by rules of logical reasoning & logical process of induction & deduction 4. Empirical: Provides a basis for external validity to results (validation) 5. Replicable: Verified by replicating the study 6. Self-Correcting: Built in mechanism & open to public scrutiny by fellow professionals Idealized Research Process Find a question to seek an answer for: Method: Choose an appropriate research method and make flexible plans Evidence: Gather the data, do the experiment, build the prototype etc. Contribution: Analyse, interpret, and conclude Argument: Write the report Importance of “writing” (aided by thinking from the point of view of your readers) 1.7. Classifications of Research This particular topic is extracted from International network for natural sciences website. According to the publication, research is a logical and systematic search for new and useful information on a particular topic. Research is important both in scientific and nonscientific fields. In our life new problems, events, phenomena and processes occur every day. Practically, implementable solutions and suggestions are required for tackling new problems that arise. Scientists have to undertake research on them and find their causes, solutions, explanations and applications. The research is broadly classified into two main classes: 1. Fundamental or basic research 2. Applied research Basic and applied researches are generally of two kinds: normal research and revolutionary research. In any particular field, normal research is performed in accordance with a set of rules, concepts and procedures called a paradigm, which is well accepted by the scientists working in that field. In addition, the basic and applied researches can be quantitative or qualitative or even both. 1. Fundamental or basic research: Basic research is an investigation on basic principles and reasons for occurrence of a particular event or process or phenomenon. It is also called theoretical research. It is not concerned with solving any practical problems of immediate interest. But it is original or basic in character. It provides a systematic and deep insight into a problem and facilitates extraction of scientific and logical explanation and conclusion on it. It helps build new frontiers of knowledge. The outcomes of basic research form the basis for many applied researches. Basic research  Seeks generalization  Aims at basic processes  Attempts to explain why things happen  Tries to get all the facts  Reports in technical language of the topic 2. Applied research: In an applied research one solves certain problems employing well known and accepted theories and principles. Most of the experimental research, case studies and inter- disciplinary research are essentially applied research. Applied research is helpful for basic research. A research, the outcome of which has immediate application is also termed as applied research. Such a research is of practical use to current activity. Applied research  Studies individual or specific cases without the objective to generalize  Aims at any variable which makes the desired difference  Tries to say how things can be changed  Tries to correct the facts which are problematic  Reports in common language Basic and applied research, further divided into three types of research bearing some characteristics feature as follows:  Quantitative research  It is numerical, non-descriptive, applies statistics or mathematics and uses numbers.  It is an iterative process whereby evidence is evaluated.  The results are often presented in tables and graphs.  It is conclusive.  It investigates the what, where and when of decision making.  Qualitative research  It is non-numerical, descriptive, applies reasoning and uses words.  Its aim is to get the meaning, feeling and describe the situation.  Qualitative data cannot be graphed.  It is exploratory.  It investigates the why and how of decision making.  Mixed research Mixed research- research that involves the mixing of quantitative and qualitative methods or paradigm characteristics. Nature of data is mixture of variables, words and images. Other types of research  Exploratory Research - might involve a literature search or conducting focus group interviews. The exploration of new phenomena in this way may  help the researcher’s need for better understanding, may test the feasibility of a more extensive study, or determine the best methods to be used in a subsequent study. For these reasons, exploratory research is broad in focus and rarely provides definite answers to specific research issues. The objective of exploratory research is to identify key issues and key variables.  Descriptive research - is directed toward studying “what” and how many off this “what”. Thus, it is directed toward answering questions such as, “What is this?”. Explanatory research - Its primary goal is to understand or to explain relationships.  It uses correlations to study relationships between dimensions or characteristics off individuals, groups, situations, or events.  Explanatory research explains (How the parts of a phenomenon are related to each other).  Explanatory research asks the “Why” question.  Longitudinal Research - carried out longitudinally involves data collection at multiple points in time. Longitudinal studies may take the form of:  Trend study- looks at population characteristics over time, e.g. organizational absenteeism rates during the course of a year  Cohort study- traces a sub-population over time, e.g. absenteeism rates for the sales department;  Panel study- traces the same sample over time, e.g. graduate career tracks over the period 1990 – 2000 for the same starting cohort.  Cross-sectional Research - one-shot or cross-sectional studies are those in which data is gathered once, during a period of days, weeks or months. Many cross-sectional studies are exploratory or descriptive in purpose. They are designed to look at how things are now, without any sense of whether there is a history or trend at work.  Action research - fact findings to improve the quality of action in the social world  Policy-Oriented Research - reports employing this type of research focus on the question ‘How can problem ‘X’ be solved or prevented?’ Classification research  It aims at categorization of units in to groups  To demonstrate differences  To explain relationships  Comparative research  To identify similarities and differences between units at all levels   Causal research  It aims at establishing cause and effect relationship among variable  Theory-testing research  It aims at testing validity of a unit  Theory-building research  To establish and formulate the theory Last of all, it is needless to say that scientific research helps us in many ways:  A research problem refers to a difficulty which a researcher or a scientific community or an industry or a government organization or a society experience. It may be a theoretical or a practical situation. It calls for a thorough understanding and possible solution.  Research provides basis for many government policies. For example, research on the needs and desires of the people and on the availability of revenues to meet the needs helps a government to prepare a budget.  It is the fountain of knowledge and provide guidelines for solving problems.  Only through research inventions can be made; for example, new and novel phenomena and processes such as superconductivity and cloning have been discovered only through research.  It is important in industry and business for higher gain and productivity and to improve the quality of products.  Research leads to a new style of life and makes it delightful and glorious.  It leads to the identification and characterization of new materials, new living things, new stars, etc.  Mathematical and logical research on business and industry optimizes the problems in them.  Social research helps find answers to social problems. They explain social phenomena and seek solution to social problems. 1.8. The Research Process Sources: 1. RESEARCH 1 - 2 - The Research Process (n.d.). YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=miMnSowiq4s 2. 6 steps in the research process (n.d.). YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YIVamS04Ikk  Lesson 2. Research Process and Paradigms 2.1. Understanding research problems 2.2. Characteristics of a good research problem 2.3. Sources of Research problems 2.4. Identification/Selection of a Research problem 2.5. Probing research problems 2.1. Understanding research problems A research problem is a specific issue, difficulty, contradiction, or gap in knowledge that you will aim to address in your research. You might look for practical problems aimed at contributing to change, or theoretical problems aimed at expanding knowledge as cited by McCombes, (2020). We should bear in mind that some research will do both of these things, but usually the research problem focuses on one or the other. The type of research problem you choose depends on your broad topic of interest and the type of research you want to do. Your research question is the primary question your project sets out to answer. Or to put it another way, the problem you are trying to solve. Defining your research question is therefore the first step - and one of the most important - in any piece of research according to Smith, (2020). It’s also a task that will come up again and again, because any business research process is cyclical. New questions arise as you iterate and progress through discovering, refining, and improving your products and processes. 2.2. Characteristics of a good research problem  The problem can be stated clearly and concisely. Problem must be clear and concise because this will serve as the basis for the introductory section of your proposal, directing your reader’s attention quickly to the issue.  The problem generates research questions. Good research must begin with a good research question. Something that novice researchers often find difficult and stressful.  It is grounded in theory. Research framework suitable to your study.  It relates to one or more academic fields of study. Research differ from one academic discipline to another. Different academic disciplines require researchers to use different research methods and techniques.  It has a base in the research literature. Literature refers to a collection of published information/materials on a particular area of research or topic, such as books and journal articles of academic value. It  should include the key sources related to the main debates, trends and gaps in your research area.  It has potential significance/importance. Research is a invaluable tool for building on crucial knowledge. The most reliable way to begin and understand the complexities of various issues; to maintain integrity, disprove lies and uphold important truths.  It is do-able within the time frame and budget. Setting a time budget means proactively allocating shares of time for the things that matter to you. Do not do a study if you have difficulty in gathering which may require years to collect.  Sufficient data are available or can be obtained. Primary data sources include information collected and processed directly by the researcher, such as observations, surveys, interviews, and focus groups. Secondary data sources include information retrieved through preexisting sources: research articles, internet or library searches. In some cases, there are insufficient data to address the problem. Historical persons may have died, archival materials may be lost, or there may be restrictions on access to certain information.  The researcher’s methodological strengths can be applied to the problem. While most researchers are exposed to a variety of methodologies researcher tend to become engrossed with our own specialty.  The problem is new; it is not already answered sufficiently. Use broader questions to draw out deeper concerns to your problem. In doing so, you may end up helping discover their own strength which works far better than offering the answer you think for your respondents. 2.3. Sources of Research problems  Source: Formulating research problems. (2015, September 21). Share and Discover Knowledge on SlideShare. https://www.slideshare.net/razifshahril/4-formulating-research-problems 2.4. Identification/Selection of a Research problem The sources for identification of a research problem are as follows: 1. Subject area of the researcher 2. Knowledge of the current trends – issues and situations 3. Knowledge of political and economic trends – issues and situations 4. On-going programs and initiatives – evaluation of their effectiveness 5. Deep observation – careful study 6. Cause and effect relationship pf phenomenon 7. Awareness of the social surroundings 8. Reading research articles in journals 9. Personal experience – situations faced by the researcher After identifying the topics. The considerations for selection of a research are as follows: 1. A unique topic to avoid duplication of studies 2. Researcher’s interest in the topic 3. Subjects area and expertise of the researcher 4. Urgency to address the problem 5. Significance of the topic 6. Resource availability – time and monetary resources 7. Availability of enough data on the data – for initial theoretical understanding 8. Applicability of the methodology in the specific context Source: Identification & selection of social research problem. (n.d.). STUDY SKILLS | ENGLISH BASICS | TEST PREPARATION | STUDY RESOURCES. https://www.studyandexam.com/problem-identification.html 2.5. Probing research problems Probing is a specific research technique used by interviewers in individual and group interviews and focus groups to generate further explanation from research participants. Probing may be achieved nonverbally with pauses or gestures, or verbally with follow-up questions. Probing questions are intended to help the presenter think more deeply about the issue at hand. Examples of probing questions: Why do you think this is the case? What do you think would happen if? Source: MMA how to design and validate an effective questionnaire for survey research sample slide. (n.d.). SlidePlayer - Upload and Share your PowerPoint presentations. https://slideplayer.com/slide/6830688/  Lesson 3. Types of Research 3.1. Problem statements and Research Objectives 3.2. SMART Principle of defining specific objectives 3.3. Thesis on possible solutions to the identified problems 3.1. Problem statements and Research Objectives Why the Research Problem Is Important? It establishes the importance of the topic It creates reader interest It focuses the reader’s attention on how the study will add to the literature. Source: Abraham S. Fischler College of Education and School of Criminal Justice | Nova Southeastern University. https://education.nova.edu/Resources/uploads/app/35/files/arc_doc/from_problem_statement_to_research _questions.pdf Justifying the Importance of the Research Problem Justification based on what other researchers have found Justification based on personal or workplace experiences Justification based on the experiences that others have had in the workplace Example of a Research Problem: Research Question: X - How can sexual health services and LGBT support services in district X be improved? / - How can sexual health clinics in district X develop their services and communications to be more LGBT-inclusive? Explanation: The first question is not focused enough: it tries to address two different practical problems (the quality of sexual health services and LGBT support services). Even though the two issues are related, it’s not clear how the research will bring them together. The second integrates the two problems into one focused, specific question. Research Objectives Your aim should be specific and phrased in such a way that it is possible to identify when it has been achieved. Research objectives outline the specific steps that you will take to achieve your research aim. Objectives define the what, why, who, when and how questions. Writing your research objectives clearly helps to: 1. Define the focus of your study. 2. Clearly identify variables to be measured. 3. Indicate the various steps to be involved. 4. Establish the limits of the study. 5. Avoid collection of any data that is not strictly necessary 3.2. SMART Principle of defining specific objectives The "SMART" acronym stands for: S – Specific - What is to be done? / How will you know it is done? M- measurable - How will you know it meets expectations? A – attainable - Can the person do it? R – Relevant / reliable - Should it be done? Why? And what will be the impact? T - time-bound - When will it be done? Each SMART goal you create should have these five characteristics to ensure the goal can be reached. Example of Objective: Overall Goal: I want to run my own consulting business. S.M.A.R.T. Goal: Within one month, I will land my first client after organizing a sensible plan for sending out pitches. Specific: Using my network, I will seek out companies in need of my consulting services. Measurable: I will pitch my first three clients within two weeks, aiming to pitch five per week thereafter. Attainable: I will competently outline what I can do for businesses, I will perfect my pitch, and work on my portfolio. Relevant: Knowing this is something I'm good at, I will utilize my contacts and remain focused on my dream to do work I enjoy. Time-bound: I will start pitching clients immediately; within a month, I will have my first paying client. 3.3. Thesis on possible solutions to the identified problems Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Method Research Qualitative as a word refers to the attributes of thing and meanings that are usually not experimentally examined or measured in terms of quantity, amount, intensity, or frequency. Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon involving quality. Although we measure and weigh things in the study of substance or structure, it is usually difficult to measure or weigh patterns. Qualitative research thus leans towards;  Socially constructed nature of reality  How social experience is created and given meaning  The intimate relationship between the researcher and what is studied  The situational constraints that shape inquiry. Quantitative as a word is derived from the word “quantity” and consist of information or data in the form of numbers.  This allows us to measure or to quantify a whole range of things.  Studies therefore emphasizes on the measurement and analysis of causal relationships between variables and not processes. Examples:  the number of people who live below the poverty line  the number of children between specific ages who attend school  the average spending power in a community  number of adults who have access to computers in a village or town Mixed methods research represents more of an approach to examining a research problem than a methodology. Characterized by a focus on research problems that require: 1. An examination of real-life contextual understandings, multi-level perspectives, and cultural influences 2. An intentional application of rigorous quantitative research assessing magnitude and frequency of constructs and rigorous qualitative research exploring the meaning and understanding of the constructs 3. An objective of drawing on the strengths of quantitative and qualitative data gathering techniques to formulate a holistic interpretive framework for generating possible solutions or new understandings of the problem Source: Applied Computer Science: MAT 2101 RESEARCH METHODS Dr. Joseph K. Adjei  Lesson 4. Definition of Terms, Scope and Limitation , Significance of the Study, Dependent Variables and Independent variables and Input- Process-Output 4.1. Operational definition of terms 4.2. Scope and Limitation of the Study 4.3. Significance of the Study 4.4. Relevance and timeliness of the study 4.5. Dependent variables (DV) and independent variables (IV) 4.6. Input – Process - Output (IPO) 4.1. Operational definition of terms  There are some terms in the study, which the reader may not understand. It is therefore important to define terms which are within the context of the study.  Definition of terms is not footnoted, since they are operational or how they are used in the study, and it is not a technical concept.  Must be arranged in alphabetically.  It must be also stated if you used your definition of terms technically or operationally. 4.2. Scope and Limitation of the Study  It would only mean the extent of the study, or it will be a discussion of what it will not do, but will be confined only to the topics referred to in the study. To be more specific, the scope defines clearly the where, what, when, and who of the study and will not go beyond that.  On the other hand, when the other is preferred or used and limitations are expressed, it would mean it is a phase, aspect, or a situation in the study which may adversely affect the results with which you have no control.  The scope of a study explains the extent to which the research area will be explored in the work and specifies the parameters within which the study will be operating. For example: Let's say a researcher wants to study the impact of mobile phones on behavior patterns of elementary school children. However, it is not possible for the researcher to cover every aspect of the topic. 4.3. Significance of the Study  One of the most important considerations in the choice of a topic is the fact that it is important, or that it is of value.  The study should have an importance to you, to the school, or the community, or that it will end up developing a policy that will benefit national leadership in education, in the university, or in the community.  Mention the sectors that will be benefited by the study, as well as its contribution to current research and knowledge.  It also includes an explanation of the work's importance as well as its potential benefits. 4.4. Relevance and timeliness of the study  Relevance is the concept of one topic being connected to another topic in a way that makes it useful to consider the second topic when considering the first. The concept of relevance is studied in many different fields, including cognitive sciences, logic, and library and information science.  Timeliness refers to the appropriateness of when an event happens. In relation to data quality content, timeliness has been defined as the degree to which data represent reality from the required point in time. 4.5 Dependent variables (DV) and independent variables (IV)  Dependent variables - The values that result from the independent variables.  Independent variables - The values that can be changed or controlled in a given model or equation. They provide the "input" which is modified by the model to change the "output." Dependent and independent variables - Expii. (n.d.). expii. https://www.expii.com/t/dependent-and-independent-variables-4337 Example of Variables in Experiments Source: What are dependent and independent variables? (2017, August 20). Statistics, Data Science, Machine Learning and Data Engineering. https://deepdatamart.com/dependent-independent-variables/ 4.6 Input – Process – Output (IPO) IPO model has a causal structure, in that outputs are a function of various group processes, which are in turn influenced by numerous input variables. Adopted from: Introduction to operations management. (n.d.). OpenLearn. https://www.open.edu/openlearn/money-business/business- strategy-studies/introduction-operations-management/content-section-2 This framework shows that the operations management role is divided into three areas:  Managing input resources – Operations managers / owners must ensure that the right resources, such as people, equipment and materials, are available in the right quantity at the right time for the operation’s needs.  Managing processes – All operations managers are responsible for processes. Processes are defined as a series of interlinked activities or steps that consume resources to meet a goal or output.  Managing outputs – The operations function is responsible for meeting customers’ needs by delivering required products or services. The effectiveness and efficiency of the operation dictates how much resource is needed and this feeds straight through to unit cost and profitability.  Lesson 5. Review of Related Literature and Studies 5.1. Review of related literature and studies 5.2. Sources of related literature and studies 5.3. Literature Review Matrix 5.4. Citations and references 5.5. Plagiarism 5.1. Review of related literature and studies According to Adjei, J.: Literature review is a collection of research publications, books and other documents related to the defined problem. It is very essential to know whether the defined problem has already been solved, status of the problem, techniques that are useful to investigate the problem and other related details. Goes beyond the search for information and includes the identification and articulation of relationships between existing literature and your field of research. Enables the researcher to discover what has been already been written about a topic and to understand the relationship between the various contributions. Enable the researcher to determine the contributions of each sources such as books and article to the topic and provide the researcher to identify and resolve contradictions, and also determine research gaps or unanswered questions. How to write a literature review A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research. Writing a literature review involves finding relevant publications such as books and journal articles, critically analyzing them, and explaining what you found. There are five key steps: 1. Search for relevant literature 2. Evaluate sources 3. Identify themes, debates and gaps 4. Outline the structure 5. Write your literature review A good literature review doesn’t just summarize sources – it analyzes, synthesizes, and critically evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject. Slide share: Source: Related literature and studies. (2013, November 18). Share and Discover Knowledge on SlideShare. https://www.slideshare.net/RoquiMalijan/group-3-28367418 5.2. Sources of related literature and studies Primary sources Original materials on which other research is based, including: original written works – poems, diaries, court records, interviews, surveys, and original research/fieldwork, and research published in scholarly/academic journals. Secondary sources Those that describe or analyze primary sources, including: reference materials – dictionaries, encyclopedias, textbooks, and books and articles that interpret, review, or synthesize original research/fieldwork. Tertiary sources Those used to organize and locate secondary and primary sources. Indexes – provide citations that fully identify a work with information such as author, titles of a book, article, and/or journal, publisher and publication date, volume and issue number and page numbers. Abstracts – summarize the primary or secondary sources Databases – are online indexes that usually include abstracts for each primary or secondary resource, and may also include a digital copy of the resource. Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zSdnd9MznPk 5.3. Literature Review Matrix These documents allow you to compile details about your sources, such as the foundational theories, methodologies, and conclusions; begin to note similarities among the authors; and retrieve citation information for easy insertion within a document. Sample Literature Review Matrix Adopted from: Literature review matrix | Science writing, literature, academic writing. (n.d.)Pinterest. https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/216595063311898119/ Tips:  You cannot read everything – try to read the most relevant work in the field.  Do not lose track of your references – you should keep your references organized.  Do not organize the review chronologically – you should organize papers by groups of ideas. 5.4. Citations and references Source: American Psychological Association referencing style & citation. (2019, October 13). Share and Discover Knowledge on SlideShare. https://www.slideshare.net/MarkLeniel/american-psychological-association- referencing-style-citation American Psychological Association (APA) format for References American Educational Research Association. (1985). Standards for educational and psychological testing. American Psychological Association. Colclough, B., & Colclough, J. (1999). A challenge to change. Thorsons. Kubler-Ross, E. (1993b). Questions and answers on death and dying. New York, NY: Collier Books. Internet Source: Newbold, C. R. (2014). Can I use that picture? The terms, laws, and ethics for using copyrighted pictures. The Visual Communication Guy. http://thevisualcommunicationguy.com/wp- content/uploads/2014/07/Infographic_CanIUseThatPicture4.jpg StudentVIP. (2017). Lost on Campus (Version 4.1.3) [Mobile app]. Apple App Store. https://www.apple.com/au/ios/app-store/ 5.5. Plagiarism The word plagiarism has come from the Latin word ‘plagiarius,’ which means to kidnap. As the plagiarism definition suggests, when someone uses the work of another artist without properly citing the source or giving credit, then that will be an instance of plagiarism. Plagiarism is a punishable offense, and it is a form of intellectual theft. How to avoid plagiarism:  Keep track of the sources you consult in your research.  Paraphrase or quote from your sources (and add your own ideas).  Credit the original author in an in-text citation and reference list.  Use a plagiarism checker before you submit. Consequences of Self-Plagiarism:  academic misconduct  if the self-plagiarism is being done by a writer, then the publishing house can take action against him, considering their policies  if you are using parts of your own previous work in your assignment or writing, you must keep in mind that citation is essential.  Lesson 6. Methodology 6.1 Research design 6.2. Validity and reliability of research designs 6.3. Selecting an appropriate methodology 6.4. Use of research design in establishing extent of problems 6.5. The need for statistical analysis 6.6. Ethical issues and technical issues 6.1 Research design  A well-structured, objective plan of study to efficiently assess the causes and effect relationships between various dependent and independent variables  The procedures by which researchers go about their work of describing, explaining and predicting phenomena  Aim is to give the work plan of research  Less prone to an error whenever it comes to experiments and surveys Suggested reading: Research methods: How to write an academic paper. (2007, October 6). Share and Discover Knowledge on SlideShare. https://www.slideshare.net/carldowse/reserch-methods-how-to-write- an-academic-paper?next_slideshow=1 Suggested reading/Source: Quantitative research Design-PS2. (2016, 5). Share and Discover Knowledge on SlideShare. https://www.slideshare.net/prabinshakya1/quantitative-research-designps2 6.2. Validity and reliability of research designs Validity  Refers to how accurately a method measures what it is intended to measure.  Use appropriate sampling methods to select your subjects - to produce valid generalizable results, clearly define the population you are researching Random sampling  Is the purest form of probability sampling. Each member of the population has an equal and known chance of being selected  here are very large populations, it is often difficult or impossible to identify every member of the population, Types of random samples  Simple random sample - is obtained by choosing elementary units in search a way that each unit in the population has an equal chance of being selected. A simple random sample is free from sampling bias  Systematic random sample - is often used instead of random sampling. It is also called an Nth name selection technique. Example: people from a specific age range, geographical location, or profession Note: Ensure that you have enough participants and that they are representative of the population. Reliability  Refers to how consistently a method measure something. If the same result can be consistently achieved by using the same methods under the same circumstances, the measurement is considered reliable  Apply your methods consistently  Plan your method carefully to make sure you carry out the same steps in the same way for each measurement. This is important if multiple researchers are involved.  Standardize the conditions of your research Example:  if you are conducting interviews or observations, clearly define how specific behaviors or responses will be counted, and make sure questions are phrased the same way each time  When you collect your data, keep the circumstances as consistent as possible to reduce the influence of external factors that might create variation in the results   In an experimental setup, make sure all participants are given the same information and tested under the same conditions. Reliability vs validity Reliability Validity What does it The extent to which the results can be The extent to which the results really tell you? reproduced when the research is measure what they are supposed to repeated under the same conditions. measure. How is it By checking the consistency of results By checking how well the results assessed? across time, across different correspond to established theories observers, and across parts of the test and other measures of the same itself. concept. How do they A reliable measurement is not always A valid measurement is generally relate? valid: the results might be reliable: if a test produces accurate reproducible, but they’re not results, they should be reproducible. necessarily correct. Adopted from: Reliability vs validity in research | Differences, types and examples. (2020, May 1). Scribbr. https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/reliability-vs-validity/ 6.3. Selecting an appropriate methodology Source: Siegle, D. (2015, May 22). Types of research. Educational Research Basics by Del Siegle. https://researchbasics.education.uconn.edu/types-of-research/# Types of Research  Descriptive — survey, historical, content analysis, qualitative (ethnographic, narrative, phenomenological, grounded theory, and case study)  Associational — correlational, causal-comparative  Intervention — experimental, quasi-experimental, action research 6.4. Use of research design in establishing extent of problems Quantitative Research Design Methods A. Usually involves a customized mix of data gathering methods such as:  online surveys - web, mobile and email  direct /postal mail surveys  point-of-purchase surveys  telephone surveys B. Study population and sampling - where did the data come from; how robust is it; note where gaps exist or what was excluded. C. Data collection  describe the tools and methods used to collect information and identify the variables being measured  describe the methods used to obtain the data  describe what type of instrument you used and why D. Data analysis  describe the procedures for processing and analyzing the data  describe the specific instruments of analysis used to study each research objective Qualitative Research Design Methods 1. One-on-one interview – great opportunity to gather precise data; this can be face to face or phone call that will last for one hour or more 2. Focus groups - usually includes a limited number of respondents (6-10) from within your target market; to find answers to the “why” “what” and “how” questions 3. Ethnographic research - is the most in-depth observational method that studies people in their naturally occurring environment 4. Case study research - evolved over the past few years and developed into a valuable research method; involves a deep dive and thorough understanding of the data collection methods and inferring the data. 5. Record keeping - makes use of the already existing reliable documents and similar sources of information as the data source.  6. Observation - uses subjective methodologies to gather systematic information or data; deals with the 5 major sensory organs and their functioning – sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing. 6.5. The need for statistical analysis According to Zulfiqar and Bala (2016):  Statistical methods involved in carrying out a study include planning, designing, collecting data, analyzing, drawing meaningful interpretation and reporting of the research findings.  The statistical analysis gives meaning to the meaningless numbers, thereby breathing life into a lifeless data. The results and inferences are precise only if proper statistical tests are used. Descriptive statistics  Measures of central tendency The measures of central tendency are mean, median and mode.  Inferential statistics  Data are analyzed from a sample to make inferences in the larger collection of the population.  The purpose is to answer or test the hypotheses. A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. Hypothesis tests are thus procedures for making rational decisions about the reality of observed effects.  Analysis of variance - ANOVA  The Student's t-test cannot be used for comparison of three or more groups. The purpose of ANOVA is to test if there is any significant difference between the means of two or more groups.  In ANOVA, we study two variances – (a) between-group variability and (b) within-group variability. The within-group variability (error variance) is the variation that cannot be accounted for in the study design. It is based on random differences present in our samples. 6.6. Ethical issues and technical issues Philippine Health Research Ethics Board The Philippine Health Research Ethics Board (PHREB) is the main policy making body on health research ethics in the Philippines.  PHREB was established through the recommendation of the Philippine National Health Research System (PNHRS) in 2003. The Board is composed of 13 members, representing a balance of background, gender and disciplines (e.g., health research, philosophy, law, academe, medicine, public health/epidemiology, theology, social science and allied health sciences). There are also those who are from people’s organizations and the youth sector. IP is a category of property that includes intangible creations of the human intellect. There are many INTELLECTUAL types of intellectual property, and some countries PROPERTY recognize more than others. The most well-known types are copyrights, patents, trademarks, and trade secrets. Refers to the legal right of the owner of intellectual property. In simpler terms, copyright is the right to copy. This means that the original creators of products and anyone they give authorization to are COPYRIGHT the only ones with the exclusive right to reproduce the work Copyright protects literary and artistic works, such as books and other writings, musical works, films, paintings and other works, and computer programs. is the granting of a property right by a sovereign authority to an inventor. This grant provides the inventor exclusive rights to the patented process, PATENT design, or invention for a designated period in exchange for a comprehensive disclosure of the invention. Making up data or results and recording or FABRICATION reporting them. Manipulating research materials, or changing or FALSIFICATION omitting data or results such that the research is not accurately represented in the research record. PLAGIARISM The appropriation of another person's ideas, processes, results, or words without giving appropriate credit.  Lesson 7. Sampling Methods 7.1. Sampling from a population 7.2. Sample use in research 7.3. Different kinds of data in terms of sources 7.1. Sampling from a population Types of Sampling Methods: probability & non-probability PROBABILITY In probability samples, each member of the population has a known non-zero probability of being selected. Probability Methods use in Probability Sampling: 1. Random sampling – elements selected at random Example: The names of 25 employees being chosen out of a hat from a company of 250 employees. In this case, the population is all 250 employees, and the sample is random because each employee has an equal chance of being chosen. 2. Systematic sampling – is the random sampling method that requires selecting samples based on a system of intervals in a numbered population Example: Step 1: Assign a number to every element in your population. For this simple example, let’s say you have a population of 100 people, so you’ll assign the numbers 1 to 100 to the group. Step 2: Decide how large your sample size should be. See: Sample size (how to find one). For this example, let’s say you need a sample of 10 people. Step 3: Divide the population by your sample size. For this example, your population is 100 and your sample size is 10, so: 100 / 10 = 10 This is your “nth” sampling digit (i.e. you’ll choose every 10th item) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80  3. Stratified sampling - population is divided into subgroups, called strata, according to some variable or variables in importance to the study Example: One might divide a sample of adults into subgroups by age, like 18–29, 30–39, 40–49, 50–59, and 60 and above. To stratify this sample, the researcher would then randomly select proportional amounts of people from each age group. This is an effective sampling technique for studying how a trend or issue might differ across subgroups. NON -PROBABILITY 1. Convenience sampling  Is used in exploratory research where the researcher is interested in getting an inexpensive approximation of the truth. As the name implies, the sample is selected because they are convenient  Also called accidental sampling Example: When a researcher is eager to begin conducting research with people as subjects, but may not have a large budget or the time and resources that would allow for the creation of a large, randomized sample, she may choose to use the technique of convenience sampling. This could mean stopping people as they walk along a sidewalk, or surveying passersby in a mall, for example. It could also mean surveying friends, students, or colleagues to which the researcher has regular access. 2. Judgment sampling  The researcher selects the sample based on judgment. This is usually and extension of convenience sampling Example: A researcher may decide to draw the entire sample from one “representative” city, even tough the population includes all cities. When using this method, the researcher must be confident that the chosen sample is truly representative of the entire population 3. Quota sampling  The nonprobability equivalent of stratified sampling. Example: Suppose that a group of researchers is going to identify the correlation between gender and health status in a city: they need a total of 1,000 respondents and know that the proportion of females in the city population is 60 %. Using quota sampling, the researchers can go anywhere in the city to collect interviews until they reach the quota of 600 female respondents. 4. Snowball sampling  is a special nonprobability method used when the desired sample characteristic is rare  It may be extremely difficult or cost prohibitive to locate respondents in these situations  Relies on referrals from initial subjects to generate additional subjects Example: A researcher is studying environmental engineers but can only find five. She asks these engineers if they know any more. They give her several further referrals, who in turn provide additional contacts. In this way, she manages to contact sufficient engineers. 7.2. Sample use in research  In research design, population and sampling are two important terms.  A population is a group of individuals that share common connections.  A sample is a subset of the population. The sample size is the number of individuals in a sample. The more representative the sample of the population, the more confident the researcher can be in the quality of the results. 7.3 Different kinds of data in terms of sources Two types of data: Primary and Secondary  Primary data  first-hand information collected by the surveyor  data collected are pure and original and collected for a specific purpose  they have never undergone any statistical treatment before  the collected data may be published as well  expensive and the collection of primary data takes considerable time and effort Example: Census Methods of primary data collection:  Personal investigation  the surveyor collects the data  the data so collected is reliable but is suited for small projects  Questionnaires  may be used to ask specific questions that suit the study and get responses from the respondents  Secondary data  collected and published  impure in the sense that they have undergone statistical treatment at least once  is often free  Methods of secondary data collection:  Official publications  Statistical Departments of the government  Data published  Chambers of Commerce and trade associations and boards.  Articles  newspaper, from journals and technical publications  Internet  PRIMARY DATA VS SECONDARY DATA Character Primary Data Secondary Data Primary data refers to the first- Secondary data means data Definition hand data gathered by the collected by someone else earlier. researcher himself. Data Real time data Past Data Process Very Involved Quick and easy Surveys, observations, Government publications, Source experiments, questionnaire, websites, books, journal articles, personal interview, etc. internal records etc. Cost- Expensive Economical effectiveness Collection time Long Short Always specific to the May or may not be specific to the Specificity researcher’s needs. researcher’s need. Form Available in the crude form Available in the refined form Accuracy and More Less Reliability Source: Primary data and secondary data. (2020, January 5). Online Microbiology Notes. https://microbenotes.com/primary-data-and-secondary-data/  Lesson 8: Interpretation and discussion of findings 8.1. Presentation of results 8.2. Components of Discussion 8.3. Congruency 8.1. Presentation of results Source: YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=3&v=gm9t6WYBSuI&feature=emb_title  The results section of a scientific research paper represents the core findings of a study derived from the methods applied to gather and analyze information  It presents these findings in a logical sequence without bias or interpretation from the author, setting up the reader for later interpretation and evaluation in the discussion section  A major purpose of the results section is to break down the data into sentences that show its significance to the research questions  This section answers the basic question “What did you find in your research?” What is included in the Results? The results section should include the findings of your study. It includes: 1. Data presented in tables, charts, graphs, and other figures Example: Figure 1 shows that 65% of patients over 55 responded positively to the question, Are you satisfied with your hospital’s postoperative care?. Include other data such as frequency counts and subcategories. The amount of textual description used will depend on how much interpretation of the figures is necessary and how many samples the reader needs to read in order to understand the significance of these findings. 2. A contextual analysis of this data explaining its meaning in sentence form As shown in Figure 2, the p-value between the before and after sets of patients was.03%. The greater the dissatisfaction of patients, the more frequent the improvements to postoperative care. 3. Report on data collection, recruitment, and/or participants Data can be placed in multiple graphs for make it easier for the reader to assess the findings, and consolidating this information into one figure saves space and makes it easy to locate all of the most relevant results.  4. Data that corresponds to the central research questions  there is no one-size-fits-all approach when it comes to designing a strategy for structuring and writing the section of a research paper where findings are presented  read published research papers especially those with similar topics, methods, or results to your study  tables and figures should be numbered according to the order  information in figures should be relatively self-explanatory Each study is unique 5. Secondary findings (secondary outcomes, subgroup analyses, etc.)  Consider seeking additional guidance on your paper. Find additional readers to look over your results section and see if it can be improved in any way  Peers, professors, or qualified experts can provide valuable insight 8.2. Components of Discussion According to McCombes (2020): The discussion chapter includes the meaning, importance and relevance of the research results. Focuses on evaluating and interpreting your results that relates to your research questions, objectives and literature review. Making an argument to support your overall conclusions. Remember these questions on the discussions:  Interpretations: what do the results mean?  Implications: why do the results matter?  Limitations: what can’t the results tell us?  Recommendations: what practical actions or scientific studies should follow? Steps in doing your discussion: Step 1: Summarize your key findings – directly answers your research problems Examples:  The results indicate that…  The data suggests that… Step 2: Give your interpretations - spell out their significance for the reader and show exactly how they answer your research questions. Examples:  In line with the hypothesis…  Contrary to the hypothesized association…  The results contradict the claims of Smith (2007) that… Step 3: Discuss the implications - show the reader exactly what your research has contributed and why they should care. Examples:  These results build on existing evidence of…  The results do not fit with the theory that…  The data contributes a clearer understanding of…  While previous research has focused on X, these results demonstrate that Y. Step 4: Acknowledge the limitations - mention limitations that are directly relevant to your research objectives, and evaluate how much impact they had on achieving the aims of the research. Examples:  Due to the lack of available data, the results cannot confirm…  The methodological choices were constrained by…  It is beyond the scope of this study to… Step 5: State your recommendations – practical implementation for further research and provide concrete ideas for how future work can build on areas that your own research was unable to address. Examples:  Further research is needed to establish…  Future studies should take into account… Step 6: What to leave out of the discussion  Discuss only the data that you have reported  Avoid over interpretation and speculation  Aim to strengthen your credibility, not emphasize weaknesses or failures. 8.3. Congruency According to Cove, Meadows and Thurston (2008):  the concept of methodological congruence has gained more attention due to the need for careful planning of coherence and purpose among parts of research studies  complexity of the study, the goals of the study, and the research questions that focus the study must all be taken into consideration  Maintaining methodological congruence, therefore, is an important aspect of employing multiple methods and ensuring study validity.  Research Terminologies Chapter 1 – Introduction Introduction – This section shows the overview of the study, sometimes, macro-perspective in approach. Background of the study – It shows the current scenario of the study. It includes the gap and the rationale why the proponents came up with the research. Theoretical Framework - It is the structure that can hold or support a theory of research study. Conceptual Framework - It is a representation of the relationship you expect to see between your variables or the characteristics or properties you want to study. Statement of the Problem- It is used in research work as a claim that outlines the problem addressed by a study. Hypothesis - It is a concept or idea that you test through research and experiments. Significance of the Study - Refers to the relevance of the study in terms of academic contributions and practical use that might be made of the findings. Scope and Limitation- explains the extent to which the research area will be explored in the work and specifies the parameters within which the study will be operating. Operational Definition of Terms - A detailed explanation of the technical terms and measurements used during data collection. Chapter 2 – Review of Related Literature Literature Review - It is a collection of research publications, books and other documents related to the defined problem. Related Studies - Reviewing or studying existing works, carried out in a project/research work. It can be taken from journals, magazines, websites links, government reports, and other source, carried out through research. Synthesis -It is combining of information in meaningful way, and it requires more than simply placing quotes from other sources into your paper. Chapter 3 – Methodology Research Design - A well-structured, objective plan of study to efficiently assess the causes and effect relationships between various dependent and independent variables. Population and Sampling Technique - Process of taking a subset of subjects that is representative of the entire population. Research Instrument - It is a tool used to collect, measure, and analyze data related to your research interest. Research Procedure - These are the steps that researchers should take to increase the reliability and validity of their research. Statistical Treatment of Data - It is taking raw data and turning it into something that can be interpreted and used to make decisions. Chapter 4 – Results and Discussion Results and Discussion – This discusses the result of the survey based on the statistics. Chapter 5 – Summary, Conclusion, and Recommendation Summary – It shows the brief overview of the entire study, highlighting the key points, methods, findings, and contributions. Conclusion- It summarize the main findings of the study and discusses their implications. Recommendation- It shows specific suggestions or advice based on the conclusions drawn from the research.