Indus Valley Civilization 3300-1300 BCE PDF

01 ANCIENT WORLD INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION OVERVIEW The Indus River Valley Civilization, 3300-1300 BCE, also known as the Harappan Civilization Extended from modern-day northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India. Earliest civilizations in Indus Valley were di...

01 ANCIENT WORLD INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION OVERVIEW The Indus River Valley Civilization, 3300-1300 BCE, also known as the Harappan Civilization Extended from modern-day northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India. Earliest civilizations in Indus Valley were discovered in 1856 by a railroad crew. Mohenjo-daro and Harrapa Both cities shared urban design and architectural features. The Indus Valley Civilization is often separated into three phases: 1. Early Harappan 3300–2600 BCE It features an intensive agriculture, animal husbandry and the emergence of large urban centers, as well as extensive trading practices with the surrounding regions 2. Mature Harappan 2600–1900 BCE Featured urban settlements such as Harappa, Ganeriwala and Mohenjo-Daro in today's Pakistan, and Kalibangan, Dholavira, Rakhigarhi, Rupar and Lothal in present- day India. 3. Late Harappan 1900–1300 BCE The general picture presented by the late Harappan phase is one of a breakdown of urban networks and an expansion of rural ones. Roots of Indus Valley Civilization Roots of Indus Valley began as early as 7000 B.C.E. Possibly began as herders who moved into the river valley during colder months. Over time, they may have decided to farm – river, watered lands of the valley. They began trading by boat along the Indus down into the Arabian Sea, into the Persian Gulf, and up the Tigris and Euphrates into Mesopotamia. The Artifacts: Crafts and the Arts Crafts of the Indus Valley included: Pottery making Dyeing Metal working in bronze Bead making Bead materials included: Jade from the Himalayas Lapis Lazuli from Afghanistan Turquoise from Persia Amethyst from Mewar in India and Steatite, which was found locally Thousands of seals were discovered from the sites, usually made of steatite, and occasionally of agate, chert, copper, faience and terracotta, with beautiful figures of animals such as unicorn bull, rhinoceros, tiger, elephant, bison, goat, buffalo, etc. The purpose was mainly commercial. They were also used as amulets, carried on the persons of their owners, perhaps as modern identity cards. Small sculptures in stone, terra cotta, and bronze appear to represent priestly or governmental officials, dancing girls, and perhaps mother goddesses. Since there are no surviving texts to explain identities, these can only be guesses. Dice and small sculptures of bullock carts were probably used as toys and games. The first known use of cotton as a fiber for weaving textiles occurred in the Indus Valley. Carefully Planned Cities Originating around 2500 B.C.E. the thriving civilizations survived for around 500 years. Both Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, two of the largest among 500 sites, were three miles in circumference with around 40,000 people. To the north is a citadel or raised area. In Mohenjo-Daro, the citadel is built on an architectural platform about 45 feet above the plain. On the summit was a huge communal bath. Next to the large bath was a huge open space—a granary where food was stored from possible floods. Fortified walls mark the southeast corner. The lower city was laid out in a gridiron with the main streets about 45 feet wide. Private houses, almost every one with its own well, bathing space, and toilet consisting of a brick seat over a drainage area. Brick-lined drains flushed by water carried liquid and solid waste to sumps, where it was carted away, probably to fertilize nearby fields.  The town plan was regular. Even fire-baked bricks were uniform in size and shape. The regularity of plan and construction suggests a government with organization and bureaucratic capacity. No monumental architecture clearly marks the presence of a palace or temple. There is little sign of social stratification in the plan or buildings. Indus Valley Burial Sites Heads pointing to the north Some grave goods, such as pots of food and water, small amounts of jewelry, simple mirrors, and some cosmetics. Not extravagant like royal burials of Egypt or even of Mesopotamia. LOST OF THE INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION The Climate Change Theory Other scholarship suggests the collapse of Harappan society resulted from climate change. Some experts believe the drying of the Saraswati River, which began around 1900 BCE, was the main cause for climate change, while others conclude that a great flood struck the area. Any major environmental change, such as deforestation, flooding or droughts due to a river changing course, could have had disastrous effects on Harappan society, such as crop failures, starvation, and disease. Skeletal evidence suggests many people died from malaria, which is most often spread by mosquitoes. This also would have caused a breakdown in the economy and civic order within the urban areas. Another disastrous change in the Harappan climate might have been eastward-moving monsoons, or winds that bring heavy rains. Monsoons can be both helpful and detrimental to a climate, depending on whether they support or destroy vegetation and agriculture. The monsoons that came to the Indus River Valley aided the growth of agricultural surpluses, which supported the development of cities, such as Harappa. The population came to rely on seasonal monsoons rather than irrigation, and as the monsoons shifted eastward, the water supply would have dried up. The Aryan Invasion One theory suggested that a nomadic, Indo-European tribe, called the Aryans, invaded and conquered the Indus Valley Civilization. Wheeler, who was Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India from 1944 to 1948, posited that many unburied corpses found in the top levels of the Mohenjo-daro archaeological site were victims of war. The theory suggested that by using horses and more advanced weapons against the peaceful Harappan people, the Aryans may have easily defeated them. Yet shortly after Wheeler proposed his theory, other scholars dismissed it by explaining that the skeletons were not victims of invasion massacres, but rather the remains of hasty burials. Wheeler himself eventually admitted that the theory could not be proven and the skeletons indicated only a final phase of human occupation, with the decay of the city structures likely a result of it becoming uninhabited. The Aryans Approximately 1500 B.C.E. a nomadic and pastoral people who spoke the Indo-European language passed through the Hindu Kush mountains. They called themselves “Aryans” or “noble people.” They established small herding and agricultural communities throughout northern India. Their migrations took place over several centuries. Aryan Migrations in India Aryans first settled in the Punjab, the upper Indus River valley that straddles modern-day border between northern India and Pakistan. They spread east and south and established communities throughout much of the subcontinent. They learned to make iron tools and with axes and plow they cleared forests and established agricultural communities in the Ganges valley. The Aryans gradually lost the tribal political organization they had brought into India and evolved into small kingdoms with formal governments. The Caste System Four Main Varnas or Castes: Priests (Brahmins) Warriors and Aristocrats (Kshatriyas) Cultivators, artisans, and merchants (Vsaishyas) Landless peasants and serfs (Shudras) Untouchables (Dalits) The Development of a Patriarch Society Aryan Society had a strong patriarchal social order at the time of their migration into India. All priests, warriors and tribal chiefs were men. Women influenced affairs within their families but had no public authority. Women rarely learned the Vedas and were denied formal education. Sati, the practice of a wife sacrificing herself on her husband’s funeral pyre, was considered noble. Aryan Influence on Harappan Religion The Vedas were collections of religious and literary poems and songs transmitted orally. There were four parts. The most important part was the Rig Veda, a collection of 1,028 hymns addressed to the Aryan gods. Aryan priests compiled the Rig Veda between 1400 and 900 B.C.E. INDRA INDRA IS THE KING OF SVARGA (HEAVEN) AND THE DEVAS. HE IS THE GOD OF THE HEAVENS, LIGHTNING, THUNDER, STORMS, RAINS AND RIVER FLOWS. INDRA IS THE MOST REFERRED TO DEITY IN THE RIG VEDA. VARUNA VARUNA IS THE GUARDIAN OF MORAL LAW, ONE WHO PUNISHES THOSE WHO SIN WITHOUT REMORSE, AND WHO FORGIVES THOSE WHO ERR WITH REMORSE SURYA HOWEVER, THE USAGE IS CONTEXT SPECIFIC. IN SOME HYMNS, THE WORD SURYA. SŪRYA WITH PARTICULAR REVERENCE FOR THE "RISING SUN” AND ITS SYMBOLISM AS DISPELLER OF DARKNESS, ONE WHO EMPOWERS KNOWLEDGE, THE GOOD AND ALL LIFE. SIMPLY MEANS SUN AS AN INANIMATE OBJECT, A STONE OR A GEM IN THE SKY WHILE IN OTHERS IT REFERS TO A PERSONIFIED DEITY AGNI IS AN INDIAN WORD MEANING FIRE, AND CONNOTES THE VEDIC FIRE GOD OF HINDUISM. HE IS ALSO THE GUARDIAN DEITY OF THE SOUTHEAST DIRECTION, AND IS TYPICALLY FOUND IN SOUTHEAST CORNERS OF HINDU TEMPLES The Upanishads ⎯ Appeared late in Vedic Age, around 800 to 400 B.C.E. ⎯ Upanishad means “sitting in front of” and refers to practice of disciples gathering before a sage for discussion of religious issues. ⎯ The Upanishads were dialogues that explored the Vedas. ⎯ Each person is part of a large, cosmic order and forms a small part of a universal soul known as Brahman. ⎯ Brahman is an eternal, unchanging foundation for all things. ⎯ Individual souls were born into physical world many times. ⎯ Their souls were most often humans but sometimes animals, and even occasionally plants. ⎯ The highest goal of the individual soul is to escape the cycle of birth and rebirth to enter into permanent union with Brahmin. Doctrines of the Upanishads 1. Samsara – Upon death, individuals go temporarily to the World of the Fathers and then return to earth in a new form. 2. Karma – “…a man of good acts will become good, a man of bad acts, bad. He becomes pure by pure deeds, bad by bad deeds.” 3. Suffering – A certain amount of pain and suffering is inevitable in human existence. 4. Moksha is a deep endless sleep that comes with permanent liberation from physical incarnation. 5. Brahmin – You can achieve Brahmin through meditation and asceticism, leading extremely simple lives and denying all pleasure. HINDUISM AND BUDDHISM HINDUISM AND BUDDHISM, THE TWO MAJOR MODERN RELIGIONS ORIGINATING IN ASIA, DEVELOPED IN THE LATE CENTURIES BCE AND THE EARLY CENTURIES CE. HINDUISM, THE DOMINANT RELIGION IN INDIA TODAY, DISCUSSED IN MORE DETAIL LATER, HAS ITS ORIGINS IN ARYAN RELIGION. MAURYA DYNASTY - CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA - (R. 323–298 BCE) FOUNDER OF THE MAURYA DYNASTY - ASHOKA - THE GREATEST MAURYA RULER, ASHOKA (R. 272–231 BCE), LEFT HIS IMPRINT ON HISTORY BY CONVERTING TO BUDDHISM AND SPREADING THE BUDDHA’S TEACHING THROUGHOUT AND BEYOND INDIA. ASHOKA COMMISSIONED WORKS THAT REFLECT GREEK AND PERSIAN INFLUENCES ERECTED A SERIES OF PILLARS THROUGHOUT THE EMPIRE BEARING BUDDHIST TEACHINGS. KNOWN CAPITALS OF THE PILLARS OF ASHOKA It refers to the established locations where Emperor Ashoka's iconic pillars were placed, bearing inscriptions of his edicts and messages, showcasing his commitment to promoting Buddhism in ancient India. - VAISHALILION - SANKISSA ELEPHANT - RAMPURVA ZEBU BULL - LAURIA NANDANGARH LION - RAMPURVA LION - FOUR LIONS, ONCE POSSIBLY CROWNED BY A WHEEL - THE LION CAPITAL OF ASHOKA Shunga Period (185-72 BCE) After the fall of the Mauryan dynasty, the Shunga dynasty (185-72 BCE) ruled the north central region of India Buddhist art and architecture took on new monumental forms (although leaders were not Buddhist) Stupa - started out as small burial mounds erected in sacred places for wealthy individuals and rulers in the Maurya Period. Vedika - stone railing around the shoulder of the mound Torana - gates in the outer vedika around the stupa point to the cardinal points of the compass Chaitya - a Buddhist shrine or prayer hall with a stupa at one end. In modern texts on Indian architecture, the term chaitya-griha is often used to denote an assembly or prayer hall that houses a stupa Kushan Period The Kushans (known as the Yuen-chin) migrated to Pakistan, Afghanistan and Northern India. They were nomadic Caucasians who came from southern Mongolia and northwestern China. Indians trained in Roman styles worked in Gandhara, a region previously exposed to the arts of the Persians, Greeks, and Maurya emperors Gupta Period (320-500 CE) The period was named after Chandragupta I, who was crowned in Pataliputra, the old Mauryan capital This period covers the "classical period" of Indian art. The single most famous Gupta image from Sarnath represents him as a spiritualized yogin ascetic with a large nimbus, seated crossed-legged on a Lion Throne. ART OF INDIA Indian art is said to be the art form that holds most traditions and oldest history among all the art forms in the world. The aspect of art in India is said to be highly realistic. What has influenced Indian Art? Mohenjo-Daro Influence of Buddhism Reincarnation Art in India is sacred and holy. To them art is one way of expressing the message of religion. Indian art enhances the intrinsic beauty of the materials used, applying harmoniously also vivid and contrasting colors to highlight elements that accentuate the beauty of the piece since this is an important element in the realization of their work. Primordial elements for humans, as it is the case of the feelings, the eroticism, hope and love are appreciated more effectively in works of art when beauty is the prime factor in them. Flowers, elephants, birds and fish are part of the flow of component which they were inspired. Another important issue for them is the love between gods and their loved ones; this aspect is expressed with refined sensuality; Hugs, and body positions allude to carnal love but away from the grotesque. They also represent divine battles again evil by their gods and mystics monstrous been surrender or destroyed by these divinities being. What are the Elements used in Indian Art? The symbols for the five elements of nature are as follows: 1. Earth: Square 2. Water: Circle 3. Fire: Triangle 4. Air: Half Moon 5. Sky: Shape of a Droplet Architecture TAJ MAHAL An immense mausoleum of white marble, built in Agra between 1631 and 1648 by order of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his favorite wife, the Taj Mahal is the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage. 10 FOLK PAINTING FORMS THAT ARE STILL PRACTICED IN SELECT PARTS OF THE COUNTRY 1. MADHUBANI Also called Mithila art, it originated in the kingdom of Janak [in Nepal and in present-day Bihar. It is one of the most popular Indian folk arts, practiced mostly by women who wanted to be one with God. Characterized by geometric patterns, this art form wasn’t known to the outside world until the British discovered it after an earthquake in 1930’s revealed broken houses with Madhubani paintings. It mirrored the work of Picasso and Miro, according to William G. Archer. Most of these paintings or wall murals depict gods, flora and fauna. 2. MINIATURE PAINTINGS These paintings are characterized by its miniature size but intricate details and acute expressions. Originating in the Mughal era, around 16th century, Miniature paintings are influenced by Persian styles, and flourished under Shah Jahan and Akbar’s rule. As with other art forms, the paintings depict religious symbols and  epics. These paintings stand out as humans are portrayed with large eyes, a pointed nose and a slim waist, and men are always seen with a turban. 3. PHAD Originating in Rajasthan, Phad is mainly a religious form of scroll painting depicting folk deities Pabuji or Devnarayan. The 30- or 15 feet-long canvas or cloth that it is painted on is called phad. Vegetable colours and a running narrative of the lives and heroic deeds of deities characterize these paintings. 4. WARLI Originated by the Warli tribes from the Western Ghat of India, in 2500 BCE, this is easily one of the oldest art forms of India. It is mainly the use of circles, triangles and squares to form numerous shapes and depict daily life activities like fishing, hunting, festivals, dance and more. What sets it apart is the human shape: a circle and two triangles. All the paintings are done on a red ochre or dark background, while the shapes are white in color. 5. GOND Characterized by a sense of belonging with nature, the Gondi tribe in Madhya Pradesh created these bold, vibrantly colored paintings, depicting mainly flora and fauna. The colors come from charcoal, cow dung, leaves and colored soil. If you look closely, it is made up of dots and lines. Today, these styles are imitated, but with acrylic paints. 6. KALAMKARI Literally meaning ‘drawings with a pen’, Kalamkari is of two types in India: Machilipatnam, which originates from Machilipatnam in Andhra Pradesh and Srikalahasti, which originates from Chitoor in the same state. While the former refers to block-printed form of art, the latter is a free-flowing art with a pen on fabric. Today, Kalamkari art is used on sarees and ethnic clothing, and depicts anything from flora and fauna to epics such as Mahabharata or Ramayana. 7. TANJORE From down South, Tanjore or Thanjavur paintings originated in 1600 AD, encouraged by the Nayakas of Thanjavur. You can recognize a Thanjavur painting by its use of gold foil, which glitters and lends the painting a surreal look. These panel paintings on wooden planks depict devotion to gods, goddesses and saints. It borrows its styles from Maratha and Deccani art, as well as European styles. 8. CHERIYAL SCROLLS Originating in present-day Telangana, this dying art form is practised by the Nakashi family only, where it has been passed down for many generations. The tradition of long scrolls and Kalamkari art influenced the Cheriyal scrolls, a much more stylized version of Nakashi art. They resemble modern-day comic panels, with about 50 on each scroll. They use primary colors and a vivid imagination, a stark contrast from the traditional rigor of Tanjore or Mysore paintings. 9. KALIGHAT PAINTINGS A recently discovered painting style, it originated in the 19th century Bengal, from Kalighat. These paintings, on cloth and pattas, at first depicted Gods and Goddesses, but then took a turn towards social reform. With cheap paper and paint colors, squirrel hair brushes and color pigments, the art was characterized by flawless strokes, brushwork, and simple but bold drawings. It sought to raise awareness about social conditions in its viewers – rich zamindars were depicted  drinking wine with women, while priests were shown with ‘unchaste’ women and police being sloppy. 10. PATACHITRA A cloth-based scroll painting from Odisha and West Bengal, these paintings with sharp, angular bold lines depict epics, Gods and Goddesses. Originating from the fifth century in religious hubs like Puri and Konark, around the same time that sculpturing began, considering there was no known distinction between an artist and sculptor back then. What’s unique about this art form is that the dress style depicted in the paintings has heavy influence of the Mughal era. RANGOLI 'rang' meaning 'color' and 'aavalli' meaning 'row of colors' Rangoli is an art form, originating in the Indian subcontinent, in which patterns are created on the floor or the ground using materials such as colored rice, dry flour, colored sand or flower petals.