OB Emergencies PDF

OBSTETRICA L EMERGENCIE S  DEFINITION  Obstetrical emergencies are life threatening medical conditions that occur in pregnancy or during labor or after delivery.  VASA PREVIA INCIDENCE The actual incidence is extremely difficult to estimate, it appears that vasa previa complicates ap...

OBSTETRICA L EMERGENCIE S  DEFINITION  Obstetrical emergencies are life threatening medical conditions that occur in pregnancy or during labor or after delivery.  VASA PREVIA INCIDENCE The actual incidence is extremely difficult to estimate, it appears that vasa previa complicates approximately 1 in 2,500 births.  DEFINITION  It is an abnormality of the cord that occurs when one or more blood vessels from the umbilical cord or placenta cross the cervix but it is not covered by Wharton’s jelly.  This condition can cause hypoxia to the baby due to pressure on the blood vessels.  It is a life threatening condition.  ETIOLOGY These vessels may be from either  Velamentous insertion of umbilical cord  placental lobe joined to the main disk of the placenta.  Low-lying placenta  Previous delivery by C-section.  SYMPTOMS  The baby’s blood is a darker red color due to lower oxygen levels of a fetus  Sudden onset of painless vaginal bleeding, especially in their second and third trimesters  If very dark burgundy blood is seen when the water breaks, this may be an indication of vasa previa DIAGNOSIS Painless vaginal bleeding Colour doppler- vessel Fetal Classic crossing the bradycardia al triad membranes over the internal cervical os. Membrane rupture  MANAGEMENT  Antepartum  The patient should be monitored closely for preterm labor, bleeding or rupture of membranes.  Steroids should be administered at about 32 weeks.  Hospitalization at 32 weeks is reasonable.  Take patient for emergency cesarean section if membranes are ruptured.  Fetal growth ultrasounds should be performed at least every 4 weeks.  Cervical length evaluations may help in assessing the patient's risk for preterm delivery or rupture of the membranes Intrapartum  The patient should not be allowed to labor. She should be delivered by elective cesarean at about 35 weeks  Delaying delivery until after 36 weeks increases the risk of membrane rupture.  Care should be taken to avoid incising the fetal vessels at the time of cesarean delivery.  If vasa previa is recognized during labor in an undiagnosed patient, she should be delivered by urgent cesarean. The placenta should be examined to confirm the diagnosis Postpartum  Routine postpartum management as for cesarean delivery.  If the fetus is born after blood loss, transfusion of blood without delay may be life-saving.  It is important to have O negative blood or type-specific blood available immediately for neonatal transfusion NURSING MANAGEMENT  Assess bleeding, color, am ount  Administer iv fluids.  Administer oxygen.  Strict vitals and FHS monitoring.  Prepare patient for caesarean section.  Reserve blood if (Hct >30%) AMNIOTIC FLUID EMBOLISM INCIDENCE  Amnioticfluid embolism syndrome is rare. Most studies indicate that the incidence rate is between 1 and 12 cases per 100,000 deliveries DEFINATION  An amniotic fluid embolism is rare but serious condition that occur when amniotic fluid, fetal material, such as hair, enters the maternal bloodstream.  The body respond in 2 phases  The initial phase is one of pulmonary vasospasm causing hypoxia, hypotension, pulmonary edema and cardiovascular collapse.  The second phase sees the development of left ventricular failure, with hemorrhage and coagulation disorders and further uncontrollable hemorrhage  ETIOLOGY  A maternal age of 35 years  older Caesarean or instrumental vaginal delivery  Polyhydramnios Cervical laceration or uterine rupture  Placenta previa or abruption  Amniocentesis  Eclampsia  Abdominal trauma  Ruptured uterine or cervical veins  Ruptured membranes  SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS  Sudden shortness of breath  Excess fluid in the lungs  Sudden low blood pressure  Sudden circulatory failure Life- threatening problems with blood clotting (disseminated intravascular coagulopathy)  Altered mental status  Nausea or vomiting  Chills  Rapid heart rate  Fetal distress  Seizures  Coma  DIAGNOSIS  Chest X-ray: May show an enlarged right atrium and ventricle and prominent proximal pulmonary artery and pulmonary edema.  Lung scan: May demonstrate some areas of reduced radioactivity in the lung field.  Central venous pressure (CVP) with an initial rise due to pulmonary hypertension and eventually a profound drop due to severe hemorrhage.  Coagulation profile: decreased platelet count, decreased fibrinogen and a fibrinogenemia, prolonged PT and PTT, and presence of fibrin degradation products.  Cardiac enzymes levels may be elevated;  Echocardiography may demonstrate acute left heart failure, acute right heart failure or severe pulmonary hypertension  MANAGEMENT  Maintain systolic blood pressure > 90 mm Hg.  Urine output > 25 ml/hr  Re-establishing uterine tone  Correct coagulation abnormalities  Administer oxygen to maintain normal saturation.  Intubate if necessary.  Initiate cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) if the patient arrests. If she does not respond to resuscitation, perform a cesarean delivery.  Treat hypotension with crystalloid and blood products.  Consider pulmonary artery catheterization in patients who are haemodynamically unstable. Continuously monitor the fetus.  trauma to the uterus must be avoided during maneuvers such as insertion of a pressure catheter or rupture of membranes.  Incision of the placenta during caesarean delivery should also be avoided NURSING MANAGEMENT  Give immediate and vigorous treatment.  Give oxygen by face mask.  Maintain normal blood volume through administration of plasma and intravenous fluids.  Prevent development of disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC). Serious complications can occur.  Administer whole blood and fibrinogen.  Monitor the patient’s vital signs.  Deliver the fetus as soon as possible  OBSTETRIC SHOCK  Shockis a critical condition and a life threatening medical emergency.  Shockresults from acute, generalized, inadequate perfusion of tissues, below that needed to deliver the oxygen and nutrients for normal function  ETIOLOGY  Hypovolemia (Hemorrhage (occult /overt), hyperemesis, diarrhea, diabetic acidosis, peritonitis, burns.)  sepsis  Cardiogenic (cardiomyopathies, obstructive structural, obstructive non -structural, dysrhythmias).  Anaphylaxis  Distributive (Neurogenic- spinal injury, regional anesthesia  DIAGNOSIS  There are no laboratory test for shock  A high index of suspicion and physical signs of inadequate tissue perfusion and oxygenation are the basis for initiating prompt management.  Initial management does not rely on knowledge of the underlying cause. INITIAL MANAGEMENT  Maintain ABC  Airway should assured - oxygen 15lt/min.  Breathing – ventilation should be checked and support if inadequate  Circulation- (with control of hemorrhage) – Two wide bore canulla – Restore circulatory volume  Reverse hypotention with crystalloid. – Crossmatch,  Arrange and give blood if necessary.  See for response such as , vital sign HYPOVOLEMIC SHOCK  Thenormal pregnant woman can withstand blood loss of 500 ml and even up to 1000 ml during delivery without obvious danger due to physiological cardiovascular and haematological adaptations during pregnancy.  ETIOLOGY  Antenatal– Ruptured ectopic pregancy , Incomplete abortion ,Placenta previa – Placental abruption , Uterine rupture  Postpartum – Uterine atony ,Laceration to genital tract ,Chorioamnionitis – Coagulopathy , Retained placental tissue. SIGN AND SYMPTOMS Mild symptoms Severe symptoms, include:- can include:  cold or clammy skin  headache  pale skin  fatigue  rapid, shallow breathing  rapid heart rate  nausea  little or no urine output  profuse  confusion sweating  weakness  dizziness  weak pulse  blue lips and fingernails  Lightheadedness  loss of consciousness  MANAGEMENT  Basic shock management then treat specific cause.  Laparotomy for ectopic pregnancy  Suction evacuation for incomplete abortion  management of uterine atony  Repair of laceration  Management of uterine rupture – Stop oxytocin infusion if running  Continuous maternal and fetal monitoring  Emergency laparotomy with rapid operative delivery  Cesarean hysterectomy may need to perform if hemorrhage is not controlled.  Management of uterine inversion. – Replacement of the uterus needs to be undertaken quickly as delay makes replacement more difficult.  Administer tocolytics to allow uterine relaxation. – Replacement under taken ( with placenta if still attached)-manually by slowly and steadily pushing upwards, with hydrostatic pressure or surgically  CARDIOGENIC SHOCK  Cardiogenic shock in pregnancy is a life-threatening medical condition resulting from an inadequate circulation of blood.  Pregnancy puts progressive strain on the heart as progresses.  Preexisting cardiac disease places the parturient at particular risk.  Cardiac related death in pregnancy is the second most common cause of death in pregnancy  SIGN AND SYMPTOMS  Chest pain  Nausea and vomiting  Dyspnoea  Profuse sweating  Confusion/disorientation  Palpitations  Faintness/syncope  Pale, mottled, cold skin with slow capillary refill and poor peripheral pulses.  Hypotension (remember to check BP in both arms in case of aortic dissection).  Tachycardia/bradycardia.  Raised JVP/distension of neck veins.  Peripheral oedema.  Quiet heart sounds or presence of third and fourth heart sounds.  Heaves, thrills or murmurs may be present and may indicate the cause, such as valve dysfunction.  Bilateral basal pulmonary crackles or wheeze may occur.  Oliguria MANAGEMENT  Re-establishment of circulation to the myocardium,  Minimising heart muscle damage and improving the heart’s effectiveness as a pump.  Administer Oxygen (O2) therapy to reduces the workload of the heart by reducing tissue demands for blood flow.  Administration of cardiac drugs such as Dopamine, dobutamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine, SEPTIC SHOCK This is sepsis with hypotension despite adequate fluid resuscitation. To diagnose septic shock following two criteria must be met  Evidence of infection through a positive blood culture.  Refractory hypotension- hypotension despite of adequate fluid resuscitation. ETIOLOGY  Post cesarean delivery  Prolonged rupture of membranes  Retained products of conception  rupture membrane  Intra-amniotic infusion  Water birth  Retained product of conception  Urinary tract infection  Toxic shock syndrome  Necrotizing Fasciitis SIGN AND SYMPTOMS  Abdominal pain – Vomiting – diarrhea  Signs of sepsis – Tachycardia ,Pallor  Clamminess – Peripheral shutdown –  Systemic inflammation – Fever or hypothermia  Tachypnea  Cold peripheries  Hypotension  Confusion  Oliguria  Altered mental state MANAGEMENT  Transfer to a higher level facility.  Invasive monitoring will inevitably but necessary  Obtain blood culture , wound swab culture and vaginal swab culture.  Start broad spectrum antibiotics.  Removal of infected tissues. ANAPHYLYTIC SHOCK A serious rapid onset of allergic reaction that is rapid onset and may cause death.  Itis a relatively uncommon event in pregnancy but has serious implications for both mother and fetus. ETIOLOGY  Pharmacological agent- penicillin group of drugs.  Insect stings  Foods  Latex SIGN AND SYMPTOMS  Cutaneous – Flushing, pruritus, urticaria , rhinitis, conjunctiva erythema, lacrimation. Cardiovascular – Cardiovascular collapse, hypotension, vasodilation and erythema, pale clammy cool skin, diaphoresis, nausea and vomiting  Respiratory – Stridor, wheezing, dyspnea, cough, chest tightness, cyanosis ,  Gastrointestinal – Nausea vomiting , abdominal pain , pelvic pain.  Central nervous system – Hypotension – collapse with or without unconsciousness, dizziness incontinence – Hypoxia – causes confusion MANAGEMENT  Immediate –  Stop administration of suspected agent and call for help  Airway maintenance  Circulation – Give epinephrine IM and repeat every 5-15min in titrated until improvement. In severe hypotension intravenous epinephrine should be given.  Rapid intravascular volume expansion with crystalloid solution. Secondary  If hypotension persist alternative vasopressor agent should use. – Atropine if persistent bradycardia  If bronchospasm persist nebulize with salbutamol  Antihistaminic  Steroids  All patient with anaphylactic shock should referred to critical care DISTRIBUTIVE SHOCK  In distributive shock there is no loss in intravascular volume or cardiac function.  The primary defect is massive vasodilation leading to relative hypovolemia, reduced perfusion pressure, so poorer flow to the tissues.  ETIOLOGY  Spinal injuries- Neurogenic shock SIGN AND SYMPTOMS  Hypotension  Bradycardia  Hypothermia  Shallow breathing  Nausea vomiting  No response to stimuli  Unconscious  Blank expression of patient MANAGEMENT  Resuscitation  Vasopressor agent and atropine may required in management because spinal injury leads bradycardia due to unopposed vagal stimulation.  Anesthesia -High spinal block  Basic ABC management –  Ventilation if needed  Administer iv fluids  Iv steroid such as methylprednisolone  Immobilize the patient to prevent further damage UTERINE INVERSION  It occurs when the placenta fails to detach from the uterus as it exits, pulls on the inside surface, and turns the organ inside out.  Uterine inversion is a potentially fatal childbirth complication with a maternal survival rate of about 85%  The incidence is about 1 in 20,000 deliveries. ETIOLOGY  The exact cause of uterus inversion is unclear.  Themost likely cause is strong traction on the umbilical cord, particularly when the placenta is in a fundal location, during the third stage of labor DIAGNOSIS Prompt diagnosis is crucial and possibly lifesaving. Some of the signs of uterine inversion could include:  The uterus protrudes from the vagina.  The fundus doesn’t seem to be in its proper position when the doctor palpates (feels) the mother’s abdomen.  The mother experiences greater than normal blood loss.  The mother’s blood pressure drops (hypotension).  The mother shows signs of shock (blood loss).  Scans (such as ultrasound or MRI) may be used in some cases to confirm the diagnosis MANAGEMENT  Before shock  Urgent manual replacement  After replacement, the hand should remain inside the uterus until the uterus become contracted by parentral oxytocics.  The placenta should be removed manually only after the uterus becomes contracted.  Usual treatment of shock including blood transfusion should be arranged.  After shock  Morphine 15mg IM , dextrose saline drip and arrangement of blood transfusion.  Push the uterus inside the vagina if possible and pack the vagina with roller gauze  Raised foot end of bed.  Replacement of uterus under general anaesthesia to be done.  Emergency hysterectomy (surgical removal of the uterus) in extreme cases where the risk of maternal death is high. NURSING MANAGEMENT  Monitorfor signs of hemorrhage and shock and treat shock  Prepare patient to reposition the uterus to the correct position via the vagina or lapr0tomy if unsuccessful. RUPTURE UTERUS  Themost serious complication in midwifery and obstetrics.  Itis often fatal for the fetus and may also be responsible for the death of the mother. DEFINITION  Disruptionin the continuity of the all uterine layers( endometrium, myometrium and serosa) any time beyond 28 weeks of pregnancy is called rupture of uterus.  INCIDENCE  The prevalence widely varies from 1 in 2000 to 1 in 200 deliveries. TYPES OF TEAR (RUPTURE) INCOMPLE COMPLET TE E  Complete rupture:-  The peritoneum tears and the contents of the mother’s uterus can spill into her peritoneal cavity.  It is suggested that delivery via cesarean section (C- section) should occur within approximately 10 to 35 minutes after a complete uterine rupture occurs.  The fetal morbidity rate increases dramatically after this period Incomplete:-  The mother’s peritoneum remains intact.  The peritoneum acts as a channel for blood vessels and nerves.  An incomplete uterine rupture is significantly less dangerous with fewer complications to the delivery process ETIOLOGY  It is further divided into:  Spontaneous  Scar rupture  Iatrogenic  Spontaneous  During pregnancy-  Previous damage to the uterine walls following D& C procedure.  Manual removal of placenta  Thin uterine wall  Congenital malformation of uterus.  During labour-  Obstructive rupture due to obstructed labour  Non obstructive rupture due to weakening of walls due to repeated previous birth  Scar rupture  Classical caesarean or hysterectomy scar.  Iatrogenic  During pregnancy-  Injudicious administration of oxytocin  Use of prostaglandin for induction of abortion or labour  Forcible external version  Fall or blow on the abdomen.  During labour  Internal podalic version.  Destructive operation.  Manual removal of placenta.  Application of forceps or breech extraction through incomplete dilated cervix.  Injudicious administration of oxytocin for augmentation of labour SIGN AND SYMPTOMS  Abdominal pain and tenderness  Shock  Vaginal bleeding  Undetectable fetal heart beat  Palpable fetal body parts  Cessation of contractions  Signs of intra-peritoneal bleeding  The most common sign is the sudden appearance of fetal distress during labor.  Complete laceration of uterine wall.  Sharp pain between contractions - Contractions that slow down or become less intense  Recession of the fetal head (baby’s head moving back up into the birth canal)  Bulging under the pubic bone (baby’s head has protruded outside of the uterine scar) Sharp onset of pain at the site of the previous scar.  Uterine atony (loss of uterine muscle tone)  Maternal tachycardia (rapid heart rate) and hypotension DIAGNOSIS  Ultrasonography is probably the safest and most useful imaging technique during pregnancy. sonographic findings associated with includes: Extra peritoneal hematoma intrauterine bleed free peritoneal blood empty uterus gestational sac above the uterus large uterus mass with gas  Painful bleeding.  Loss of FHS MANAGEMENT  Principles for the treatment of uterine rupture includes:  Intensiveresuscitation  Emergency laparotomy  Broad spectrum antibiotics  Adequate post operative care  Intensive resuscitation  Correct hypovolaemia from- # Haemorrhage # Sepsis #Dehydration  Intravenous broad spectrum antibiotics #Cephalosporin + Metronidazole combination  Monitor to ensure adequate fluid and blood replacement  Blood volume expansion may worsen the bleeding from damaged vessel and so the laparotomy should not be delay, once patient condition has improved.  Surgical options  Hysterectomy -Treatment of choice except any other compelling reasons to preserve the uterus # Total # Sub-total  Rupture repair # Occasionally one may be forced to repair # Repair with sterilization NURSING MANAGEMENT  Monitor for the possibility of uterine rupture.  In the presence of predisposing factors, monitor maternal labor pattern closely for hyper tonicity or signs of weakening uterine muscle.  Recognize signs of impending rupture, immediately notify the physician, and call for assistance.  Assist with rapid intervention.If the client has signs of possible uterine rupture, vaginal delivery is generally not attempted. .Monitor maternal blood pressure, pulse, and respirations; also monitor fetal heart tones.  If the client has a central venous pressure catheter in place, monitor pressure to evaluate blood loss and effects of fluid and blood replacement.  Insert a urinary catheter for precise determinations of fluid balance.  Obtain blood to assess possible acidosis.  Administer oxygen, and maintain a patent airway.  Restore circulating volume using one or more IV lines.  Evaluate the cause, response to therapy, and fetal condition CORD PROLAPSE  Thereare three clinical types of abnormal descent of the umbilical cord by the side of the presenting part:  Cord presentation  Occult prolapse  Cord prolapse  Cord presentation- When cord is slipped down below the presenting part and is felt lying in the intact bag of membranes.  Occult prolapse- the cord is placed by the side of the presenting part and is not felt by the fingers on internal examination.  Cord prolapse- the cord is lying inside the vagina or outside the vulva following rupture of the membranes **The incidence of cord prolapse is about 1 in 300 deliveries ETIOLOGY  Malpresentation- transverse lie & breech.  Contracted pelvis  Prematurity  Twins  Hydramnios  Placental factor- minor degree placenta praevia  Iatrogenic- low rupture of the membranes, manual rotation of the head.  Stablising induction DIAGNOSIS  OCCULT PROLAPSE  Difficult to diagnose.  Persistence of variable deceleration of fetal heart rate pattern.  CORD PRESENTATION  Feeling the pulsation of the cord through the intact membrane.  CORD PROLAPSE  The cord is palpated directly by the fingers and its pulsation can be felt if the fetus is alive.  Cord pulsation may caese during uterine contraction, however returns after the contraction passes away. MANAGEMENT  Protocol is guided by:  Baby living or dead  Maturity of the baby  Degree of dilatation of the cervix CORD PRESENTATION  Once the diagnosis is made, no attempt should be made to replace the cord.  If immediate vaginal delivery is not possible or contraindicated , caesarean section is the best method of delivery.  A rare occasion when multipara with longitudinal lie having good uterine contractions with cervix 7-8cm dilated without fetal distress- watchful competency and delivery by forcep or breech extraction CORD PROLAPSE  Living baby  Immediate take the mother for Caesarean section.  Immediate safe vaginal delivery if- head is engaged  Immediate safe vaginal delivery not possible- First Aid  First aid  Bladder filling is done to raise the presenting part off the compressed cord.It is done by 400-750ml of NS with a foley’s catheter, the ballon is inflated and catheter is clamped.  Lift the presenting part off the cord.  Postural treatment- exaggerated and elevated sims position or trendelenburg or knee chest position.  Replace the cord into the vagina to minimize vasospasm due to irritation.  Dead baby  Labour is allowed to proceed awaiting spontaneous delivery BHARTI HOSPITAL AND RESEARCH CENTRE STATISTICAL DATA(2015- 2016  Cord Presentation- 02/1764 Deliveries.  Cord Prolapse- 01/ 1764 Deliveries  Rupture Uterus- 00/ 1764 Deliveries  Compound Presentation- 05/1764 Deliveries RECENT RESEARCHES  Scenario of obstetrical emergencies at a tertiary care hospital  Indian Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research  YEAR- 2016  ISSN NO-397-399  The present study was conducted on a prospective basis for one year, from 1st Feb 2011 to 31st Jan 2012 in the department of Obstetrics and Gynecology Govt. Medical College and Rajindra Hospital, Patiala.  All the cases referred as critical emergency from nearby areas during their antenatal period or within 42 days of delivery were included in the study. A detailed history including age, parity, gestational age, antenatal care during pregnancy, socioeconomic status, obstetrical history, medical or surgical disorders was taken into account.  Attention was paid on the management received by each case including blood transfusion, surgical interventions, ICU  Total deliveries during this period were 2223. Total obstetric emergencies came out to be 252. Thus the incidence of obstetric emergencies came out to be 11.3%.  Various obstetric emergencies that were encountered – Hemorrhage (47.97%), Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (35.32%), obstructed labor (12.3%), P. sepsis (3.18%), Rupture uterus (2.78%).  Maternal mortality came out to be 8.8% Hemorrhage was leading cause of death in 36.36% cases followed by P. sepsis (13.64%), Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (13.64%), Rupture uterus (9.09%). There were 70.2% Live births and 29.8% still births.  Conclusions: It was concluded that obstetric emergencies are more common in unbooked cases and women with low socioeconomic status with poor access to antenatal care. OBSTETRIC REFERRALS: SCENARIO AT A PRIMARY HEALTH CENTRE IN GUJARAT  NationalJournal of Community Medicine│Volume 3│Issue 4│Oct – Dec 2012.  pISSN 0976 3325│eISSN 2229 6816  Secondary data analysis of referral slips of referred cases from one PHC, Gujarat was done.  Referral slips between 2004 and 2009 were analyzed.  A total 155 pregnancy related referrals were made during this period.  Results:  Referral rate was 15.2%. The average age of women was 23.46±4.1 years, 12.2% women belonged to the high risk age group and 5.8% women were grand multipara.  Referrals were nearly equally distributed between OPD and emergency hours highlighting the need for 24X7 services at the PHCs.  Majority of referrals were during the intranatal period (64.5%), followed by antenatal cases (23.9%) and postnatal cases(11.6%).  The commonreasons for referral were non progressive labour (14.8%), severe anemia (10.3%), pre-eclampsia (10.3%), malpresentation (9.7%) and postpartum hemorrhage (9.7%).  Out of 62.6% who required pre-referral treatment, 43.3% didn’t get pre-referral treatment. Majority of pre-referral treatment were not given in intranatal period (58.9%).  Conclusion:  This study recommends the development of a standard referral protocol, proper training in this regard and universal adherence to this in practice. BIBLIOGRAPHY Ajit virkud Modern Obstetrics, APC Publishers Mumbai, 3rd edition 2017. D.c Dutta Textbook of Obstetrics7th edition, New central book agency private limited London. Anamma Jacob Midwifery and Gynaecological nursing 4th edition, Jaypee brothers and medical publishers, New Delhi. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3401872 www.ucdenver.edu/.../20a%20Hawkins%20OB%20Emergen cies%20CRASH%20201 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov › NCBI › Literature › PubMed Central (PMC) www.jogi.co.in/may_jun_2004/pdf/critical_study_of_referals _in_obstetrics.pdf bmchealthservres.biomedcentral.com/articles/ 10.1186/1472-6963-9-46