Ancient Rome: The Roman Republic (PDF)

Page 1 of 5 1 The Roman Republic MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES POWER AND AUTHORITY The Some of the most fundamental...

Page 1 of 5 1 The Roman Republic MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES POWER AND AUTHORITY The Some of the most fundamental republic senate early Romans established a values and institutions of patrician dictator republic, which grew powerful Western civilization began in the plebeian legion and spread its influence. Roman Republic. tribune Punic Wars consul Hannibal SETTING THE STAGE While the great civilization of Greece was in decline, a new city to the west was developing and increasing its power. Rome grew from a small settlement to a mighty civilization that eventually conquered the Mediterranean world. In time, the Romans would build one of the most famous and influential empires in history. The Origins of Rome TAKING NOTES Outlining Use an outline According to legend, the city of Rome was founded in 753 B.C. by Romulus and to organize the main Remus, twin sons of the god Mars and a Latin princess. The twins were aban- ideas and details. doned on the Tiber River as infants and raised by a she-wolf. The twins decided I. The Origins of Rome to build a city near the spot. In reality, it was men not immortals who built the A. city, and they chose the spot largely for its strategic location and fertile soil. B. Rome’s Geography Rome was built on seven rolling hills at a curve on the II. The Early Republic A. Tiber River, near the center of the Italian peninsula. It was midway between the B. Alps and Italy’s southern tip. Rome also was near the midpoint of the III. Rome Spreads Mediterranean Sea. The historian Livy wrote about the city’s site: Its Power A. PRIMARY SOURCE B. Not without reason did gods and men choose this spot for the site of our city—the [salubrious] hills, the river to bring us produce from the inland regions and sea-borne commerce from abroad, the sea itself, near enough for convenience yet not so near as to bring danger from foreign fleets, our situation in the very heart of Italy—all these advantages make it of all places in the world the best for a city destined to grow great. LIVY, The Early History of Rome The First Romans The earliest settlers on the Italian peninsula arrived in prehistoric times. From about 1000 to 500 B.C., three groups inhabited the region and eventually battled for control. They were the Latins, the Greeks, and the Etruscans. The Latins built the original settlement at Rome, a cluster of wooden huts atop one of its seven hills, Palatine Hill. These settlers were considered to be the first Romans. Between 750 and 600 B.C., the Greeks established colonies along southern Italy and Sicily. The cities became prosperous and commercially active. They brought all of Italy, including Rome, into closer contact with Greek civilization. Ancient Rome and Early Christianity 155  Page 2 of 5 The Etruscans were native to northern Italy. They were skilled metalworkers and engineers. The Etruscans strongly influenced the development of Roman civiliza- tion. They boasted a system of writing, for example, and the Romans adopted their alphabet. They also influenced Rome’s architecture, especially the use of the arch. The Early Republic Around 600 B.C., an Etruscan became king of Rome. In the decades that followed, Rome grew from a collection of hilltop villages to a city that covered nearly 500 square miles. Various kings ordered the construction of Rome’s first temples and public centers—the most famous of which was the Forum, the heart of Roman political life. The last king of Rome was Tarquin the Proud. A harsh tyrant, he was driven from power in 509 B.C. The Romans declared they would never again be ruled by a king. Instead, they established a republic, from the Latin phrase res publica, which means “public affairs.” A republic is a form of government in which power rests with citizens who have the right to vote for their leaders. In Rome, citizenship with voting rights was granted only to free-born male citizens. Patricians and Plebeians In the early republic, different groups of Romans struggled for power. One group was the patricians, the wealthy landowners who held most of the power. The other important group was the plebeians, the com- mon farmers, artisans, and merchants who made up the majority of the population. The patricians inherited their power and social status. They claimed that their ancestry gave them the authority to make laws for Rome. The plebeians were citizens of Rome with the right to vote. However, they were barred by law from holding most important government positions. In time, Rome’s leaders allowed the plebeians to form their own assembly and elect representatives called Making tribunes. Tribunes protected the rights of the plebeians from unfair acts of Inferences patrician officials. Why did patri- cians want to pre- Twelve Tables An important victory for the plebeians was to force the creation of vent plebeians from a written law code. With laws unwritten, patrician officials often interpreted the holding important law to suit themselves. In 451 B.C., a group of ten officials began writing down positions? Rome’s laws. The laws were carved on twelve tablets, or tables, and hung in the Forum. They became the basis for later Roman law. The Twelve Tables established the idea that all free citizens had a right to the protection of the law. Ruins of the ▲ Forum, the political center of the Roman Empire, still stand in present- day Rome. 156 Chapter 6  Page 3 of 5 Comparing Republican Governments Rome United States of America Executive Two consuls, elected by the assembly for one year— A president, elected by the people for four years— chief executives of the government and commanders- chief executive of the government and commander- in-chief of the army. in-chief of the army. Legislative Senate of 300 members, chosen from aristocracy for Senate of 100 members, elected by the people life—controls foreign and financial policies, advises for six-year terms—makes laws, advises president on consuls. foreign policy. Centuriate Assembly, all citizen-soldiers are members House of Representatives of 435 members, elected for life—selects consuls, makes laws. by the people for two years—makes laws, originates Tribal Assembly, citizens grouped according to where revenue bills. they live are members for life—elects tribunes and makes laws. Judicial Praetors, eight judges chosen for one year by Supreme Court, nine justices appointed for life by Centuriate Assembly—two oversee civil and criminal president—highest court, hears civil and criminal courts (the others govern provinces). appeals cases. Legal code Twelve Tables—a list of rules that was the basis of U.S. Constitution—basic law of the United States Roman legal system Citizenship All adult male landowners All native-born or naturalized adults SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Charts 1. Comparing What similarities do you see in the governments of the Roman Republic and the United States? 2. Drawing Conclusions Which government seems more democratic? Why? Government Under the Republic In the first century B.C., Roman writers boasted that Rome had achieved a balanced government. What they meant was that their government had taken the best features of a monarchy (government by a king), an aristocracy (government by nobles), and a democracy (government by the people—see the comparison above of Rome to the United States). Rome had two officials called consuls. Like kings, they commanded the army and directed the government. However, their power was limited. A consul’s term was only one year Vocabulary long. The same person could not be elected consul again for ten years. Also, one The word veto consul could always overrule, or veto, the other’s decisions. comes from the The senate was the aristocratic branch of Rome’s government. It had both Latin for “I forbid.” legislative and administrative functions in the republic. Its 300 members were cho- sen from the upper class of Roman society. Later, plebeians were allowed in the senate. The senate exercised great influence over both foreign and domestic policy. The assemblies represented the more democratic side of the government. For example, an assembly organized by the plebeians, the Tribal Assembly, elected the tribunes and made laws for the common people—and later for the republic itself. In times of crisis, the republic could appoint a dictator—a leader who had abso- lute power to make laws and command the army. A dictator’s power lasted for only six months. Dictators were chosen by the consuls and then elected by the senate. The Roman Army In addition to their government, the Romans placed great value on their military. All citizens who owned land were required to serve in the army. Seekers of certain public offices had to perform ten years of military serv- Vocabulary ice. Roman soldiers were organized into large military units called legions. The The term legion Roman legion was made up of some 5,000 heavily armed foot soldiers (infantry). also means a A group of soldiers on horseback (cavalry) supported each legion. Legions were multitude. divided into smaller groups of 80 men, each of which was called a century. The military organization and fighting skill of the Roman army were key factors in Rome’s rise to greatness. Ancient Rome and Early Christianity 157  Page 4 of 5 Rome Spreads Its Power For hundreds of years after the founding of the republic, Rome sought to expand its territories through trade and conquest. Rome Conquers Italy Roman power grew slowly but steadily as the legions battled for control of the Italian peninsula. By the fourth century B.C., the Romans dominated central Italy. Eventually, they defeated the Etruscans to the north and the Greek city- states to the south. By 265 B.C., the Romans were masters of nearly all Italy. Rome had different laws and treatment for different parts of its conquered territory. The neighboring Latins on the Tiber became full citizens of Rome. In territories farther from Rome, conquered peoples enjoyed all the rights of Roman citizenship except the vote. All other conquered groups fell into a third category, allies of Rome. Rome did not interfere with its allies, as long as they supplied troops for the Roman army and did not make treaties of friendship with any other state. The new citizens and allies became partners in Rome’s growth. This lenient policy toward defeated enemies helped Rome to succeed in building a long-lasting empire. For more than two centuries after 265 B.C., Roman power spread Analyzing Issues far beyond Italy. How did its treatment of Rome’s Commercial Network Rome’s location gave it conquered people easy access to the riches of the lands ringing the affect Rome’s Mediterranean Sea. Roman merchants moved by land and expansion? sea. They traded Roman wine and olive oil for a variety of foods, raw materials, and manufactured goods from other lands. However, other large and powerful cities interfered with Roman access to the Mediterranean. One such city was Carthage. Once a colony of Phoenicia, Carthage was located on a peninsula on the North African coast. Its rise to power soon put it in direct opposition with Rome. War with Carthage In 264 B.C., Rome and Carthage went to war. This was the beginning of the long struggle known as the Hannibal 247–183 B.C. Punic Wars. Between 264 and 146 B.C., Rome and Carthage When Hannibal was only a boy of fought three wars. The first, for control of Sicily and the west- nine, his father, Hamilcar Barca, a ern Mediterranean, lasted 23 years (264–241 B.C.). It ended Vocabulary general in Carthage’s army, made in the defeat of Carthage. The Second Punic War began in The term Punic him swear that he would always hate 218 B.C. The mastermind behind the war was a 29-year-old comes from the Rome and seek to destroy it. Latin word for Carthaginian general named Hannibal. Hannibal was a bril- After his defeat at the battle of Phoenician. liant military strategist who wanted to avenge Carthage’s Zama and Carthage’s loss in the Second Punic War, Hannibal took earlier defeat. refuge among Rome’s enemies. He Hannibal assembled an army of 50,000 infantry, 9,000 fought against Roman forces as an cavalry, and 60 elephants with the intent of capturing Rome. ally of the kings of Syria and Bithynia. Instead of a head-on attack, however, Hannibal sought to When Roman agents came for him in surprise the Romans with a most daring and risky move. He Bithynia on the Black Sea in Anatolia in 183 B.C., he committed suicide led his army on a long trek from Spain across France and rather than submit to Rome. through the Alps. Despite losing more than half his men and most of his elephants, the general’s move initially worked. For more than a decade, he marched his forces up and down INTERNET ACTIVITY Create an the Italian peninsula at will. Hannibal won his greatest vic- annotated map of Hannibal’s tory at Cannae, in 216 B.C. There his army inflicted enor- journey through the Alps. Go to mous losses on the Romans. However, the Romans classzone.com for your research. regrouped and with the aid of many allies stood firm. They prevented Hannibal from capturing Rome. 158 Chapter 6  Page 5 of 5 Punic Wars, 264–146 B.C. PS GAUL AL 0 400 Miles Ad DA 0 800 Kilometers ITALY ri LM Da n u b e R. PY at Sea Black RE i AT NE IA c ATLANTIC ES Corsica Rome Se OCEAN a MACEDONIA Cannae 40°N Sardinia (216 B.C.) SPAIN Pergamum. GREECE sR Balearic Tag u Islands ANATOLIA Sicily Corinth Athens Carthage NUMIDIA Extent of Carthage’s rule, 264 B.C. Extent of Roman rule, 264 B.C. Zama (202 B.C.) Me dit Additional Roman territory, 146 B.C. erra nean 0° Hannibal’s invasion route Sea Scipio’s invasion route AFRICA Major battle GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps Alexandria 40°E 1. Movement How many miles did Hannibal’s forces march to reach Cannae? EGYPT 2. Region What territory did Rome add between 264 B.C. and 146 B.C.? Rome Triumphs Finally, the Romans found a daring military leader to match Hannibal’s boldness. A general named Scipio (SIHP ee oh) devised a plan to attack Carthage. This strategy forced Hannibal to return to defend his native city. In 202 B.C., at Zama near Carthage, the Romans finally defeated Hannibal. During the Third Punic War (149–146 B.C.), Rome laid siege to Carthage. In 146 B.C., the city was set afire and its 50,000 inhabitants sold into slavery. Its territory was made a Roman province. Rome’s victories in the Punic Wars gave it dominance over the western Drawing Mediterranean. The Romans then went on to conquer the eastern half. By about 70 Conclusions B.C., Rome’s Mediterranean empire stretched from Anatolia in the east to Spain in Why were the Punic Wars the west. As you will read in Section 2, however, such growth and power brought important? with it a new set of difficulties. SECTION 1 ASSESSMENT TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. republic patrician plebeian tribune consul senate dictator legion Punic Wars Hannibal USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING 2. What do you consider to be 3. What limits were there on the 6. FORMING OPINIONS Do you think the Roman Republic the key characteristic of the power of the Roman consuls? owed its success more to its form of government or its early Roman Republic? Why? 4. What was the significance of army? Why? I. The Origins of Rome the Twelve Tables? 7. ANALYZING ISSUES Do you agree with claims that early A. 5. How was Hannibal’s attack on Rome had achieved a “balanced” government? Explain. B. II. The Early Republic Rome daring and different? 8. CLARIFYING How did Rome expand its territory and A. maintain control over it? B. III. Rome Spreads 9. WRITING ACTIVITY POWER AND AUTHORITY Write a brief Its Power essay explaining what problems might arise from A. appointing a dictator during times of crisis. B. CONNECT TO TODAY PREPARING AN ORAL REPORT Use the library and other resources to locate any monuments built to either Hannibal or the Punic Wars. Then present what you found and the circumstances surrounding the monument’s creation in an oral report. Ancient Rome and Early Christianity 159  Page 1 of 6 2 The Roman Empire MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES EMPIRE BUILDING The The Roman Empire has served civil war triumvirate creation of the Roman Empire throughout history as a model Julius Augustus transformed Roman govern- of political organization and Caesar Pax Romana ment, society, economy, and control. culture. SETTING THE STAGE As Rome enlarged its territory, its republican form of government grew increasingly unstable. Eventually, the Roman Republic gave way to the formation of a mighty dictator-ruled empire that continued to spread Rome’s influence far and wide. TAKING NOTES The Republic Collapses Clarifying Make a bulleted chart showing Rome’s increasing wealth and expanding boundaries brought many problems. how Rome changed as The most serious were growing discontent among the lower classes of society it became an empire. and a breakdown in military order. These problems led to a shakeup of the republic—and the emergence of a new political system. Changes in Rome Economic Turmoil As Rome grew, the gap between rich and poor grew wider.. Dictator claims Many of Rome’s rich landowners lived on huge estates. Thousands of enslaved.. sole power persons—many of whom had been captured peoples in various wars—were forced to work on these estates. By 100 B.C., enslaved persons formed perhaps one-third of Rome’s population. Small farmers found it difficult to compete with the large estates run by the labor of enslaved people. Many of these farmers were former soldiers. A large number of them sold their lands to wealthy landowners and became homeless and jobless. Most stayed in the countryside and worked as seasonal migrant laborers. Some headed to Rome and other cities looking for work. They joined the ranks of the urban poor, a group that totaled about one-fourth of Roman society. Two brothers, Tiberius and Gaius (GUY us) Gracchus (GRAK us), attempted to help Rome’s poor. As tribunes, they proposed such reforms as limiting the size of estates and giving land to the poor. Tiberius spoke eloquently about the plight of the landless former soldiers: PRIMARY SOURCE The savage beasts have their... dens,... but the men who bear arms and expose their lives for the safety of their country, enjoy... nothing more in it but the air and light... and wander from place to place with their wives and children. TIBERIUS GRACCHUS quoted in Plutarch, The Lives of Noble Greeks and Romans The brothers made enemies of numerous senators, who felt threatened by their ideas. Both met violent deaths—Tiberius in 133 B.C. and Gaius in 121 B.C. 160 Chapter 6  Page 2 of 6 A period of civil war, or conflict between groups within the same country, followed their deaths. Military Upheaval Adding to the growing turmoil within the republic was a breakdown of the once-loyal military. As the republic grew more unstable, gener- als began seizing greater power for themselves. They recruited soldiers from the landless poor by promising them land. These soldiers fought for pay and owed alle- giance only to their commander. They replaced the citizen-soldiers whose loyalty had been to the republic. It now was possible for a military leader supported by his own troops to take over by force. Eventually, one would do just that. Julius Caesar Takes Control In 60 B.C., a military leader named Julius Caesar joined forces with Crassus, a wealthy Roman, and Pompey, a popular general. With their help, Caesar was elected consul in 59 B.C. For the next ten years, these men dominated Rome as a triumvirate, a group of three rulers. Caesar was a strong leader and a genius at military strategy. Following tradition, he served only one year as consul. He then appointed himself governor of Gaul (now France). During 58–50 B.C., Caesar led his legions in a grueling but successful campaign to conquer all of Gaul. Because he shared fully in the hardships of war, he won his men’s loyalty and devotion. Julius Caesar The reports of Caesar’s successes in Gaul made him very 100–44 B.C. popular with the people of Rome. Pompey, who had become In 44 B.C., on March 15, Caesar his political rival, feared Caesar’s ambitions. In 50 B.C., the prepared to go to speak to the senate, at Pompey’s urgings, ordered Caesar to disband his Senate, unaware that important legions and return home. senators plotted his death. According Caesar defied the senate’s order. On the night of January to legend, his wife, Calpurnia, begged 10, 49 B.C., he took his army across the Rubicon River in him not to go. She said she had seen him in a dream dying in her arms of Italy, the southern limit of the area he commanded. He stab wounds. marched his army swiftly toward Rome, and Pompey fled. When Caesar arrived at the Senate Caesar’s troops defeated Pompey’s armies in Greece, Asia, chamber, he sat in his chair. Soon the Spain, and Egypt. In 46 B.C., Caesar returned to Rome, plotters encircled him, took knives where he had the support of the army and the masses. That hidden in their togas, and stabbed him same year, the senate appointed him dictator. In 44 B.C., he 23 times, as depicted in the painting below. They were led by Gaius Cassius was named dictator for life. and Caesar’s friend Marcus Brutus. Caesar’s Reforms Caesar governed as an absolute ruler, Caesar’s last words were “Et tu, one who has total power. However, he started a number of Brute?” (“You, too, Brutus?”) reforms. He granted Roman citizenship to many people in the provinces. He expanded the senate, adding friends and RESEARCH LINKS For more on Julius supporters from Italy and other regions. Caesar also helped Caesar, go to classzone.com 161  Page 3 of 6 the poor by creating jobs, especially through the construction of new public build- ings. He started colonies where people without land could own property, and he increased pay for soldiers. Many nobles and senators expressed concern over Caesar’s growing power, suc- cess, and popularity. Some feared losing their influence. Others considered him a tyrant. A number of important senators, led by Marcus Brutus and Gaius Cassius, Analyzing plotted his assassination. On March 15, 44 B.C., they stabbed him to death in the Motives senate chamber. Why did Caesar’s rivals feel Beginning of the Empire After Caesar’s death, civil war broke out again and they had to kill him? destroyed what was left of the Roman Republic. Three of Caesar’s supporters banded together to crush the assassins. Caesar’s 18-year-old grandnephew and adopted son Octavian (ahk TAY vee uhn) joined with an experienced general named Mark Antony and a powerful politician named Lepidus. In 43 B.C., they took control of Rome and ruled for ten years as the Second Triumvirate. Their alliance, however, ended in jealousy and violence. Octavian forced Lepidus to retire. He and Mark Antony then became rivals. While leading troops against Rome’s enemies in Anatolia, Mark Antony met Queen Cleopatra of Egypt. He fell in love with her and followed her to Egypt. Octavian accused Antony of plotting to rule Rome from Egypt, and another civil war erupted. Octavian defeated the combined forces of Antony and Cleopatra at the naval battle of Actium in 31 B.C. Later, Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide. While he restored some aspects of the republic, Octavian became the unchallenged ruler of Rome. Eventually he accepted the title of Augustus (aw GUHS tuhs), or “exalted one.” He also kept the title imperator, or “supreme military commander,” a term from which emperor is derived. Rome was now an empire ruled by one man. A Vast and Powerful Empire Rome was at the peak of its power from the beginning of Augustus’s rule in 27 B.C. to A.D. 180. For 207 years, peace reigned throughout the empire, except for some fighting Augustus with tribes along the borders. This period of peace and pros- Summarizing 63 B.C.–A.D. 14 perity is known as the Pax Romana— “Roman peace.” To what does Augustus was the most powerful the term Pax During this time, the Roman Empire included more than ruler of the mightiest empire of the Romana refer? ancient world. Yet, amid the pomp of 3 million square miles. Its population numbered between 60 Rome, he lived a simple and frugal and 80 million people. About 1 million people lived in the life. His home was modest by Roman city of Rome itself. standards. His favorite meal consisted A Sound Government The Romans held their vast empire of coarse bread, a few sardines, and a piece of cheese—the usual food of together in part through efficient government and able a common laborer. rulers. Augustus was Rome’s ablest emperor. He stabilized Augustus was also a very religious the frontier, glorified Rome with splendid public buildings, and family-oriented man. He held to and created a system of government that survived for cen- Vocabulary a strict moral code. He had his only turies. He set up a civil service. That is, he paid workers to The term civil child, Julia, exiled from Rome for not service refers to manage the affairs of government, such as the grain supply, being faithful in her marriage. persons employed tax collection, and the postal system. Although the senate in the civil adminis- still functioned, civil servants drawn from plebeians and tration of govern- RESEARCH LINKS For more on even former slaves actually administered the empire. ment. Augustus, go to classzone.com After Augustus died in A.D. 14, the system of government that he established maintained the empire’s stability. This 162 Chapter 6  Page 4 of 6 Trade in the Roman Empire, A.D. 200 Trade Goods BRITAIN Grain Olive oil Slaves Wine Londinium Metals Textiles Wild animals ATLANTIC GAUL EUROPE L o ire R. Roman Empire, A.D. 200 OCEAN S A LP Aquileia DACIA Danub CAU Ad eR CAS Massalia r i a Salonae. US PY RE Narbo ITALY tic Black Sea MO Ca N UN EE Rome Se TA spi S I a NS an Tarraco Byzantium SPAIN Sea 40°N GREECE ANATOLIA Ephesus Corinth Gades Carthage Me Antioch dit NS erra N TA I nean Damascus MOU Sea LAS Z AG AT Caesarea Jerusalem Ctesiphon RO AFRICA SM Alexandria OU EGYPT TA N Nile R. ARABIA IN 0 500 Miles S 0 1,000 Kilometers 40°E 0° GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps Tropic of Cancer 1. Movement From what three continents did trade goods come to Rome? 2. Location Which goods were supplied by all three areas? was due mainly to the effectiveness of the civil service in carrying out day-to-day operations. The Romans managed to control an empire that by the second century A.D. reached from Spain to Mesopotamia, from North Africa to Britain. Included in its provinces were people of many languages, cultures, and customs. Agriculture and Trade Agriculture was the most important industry in the empire. All else depended on it. About 90 percent of the people were engaged in farming. Most Romans survived on the produce from their local area. Additional food (when needed) and luxury items for the rich were obtained through trade. In Augustus’s time, a silver coin called a denarius was in use throughout the empire. Having common coinage made trade between different parts of the empire much easier. Rome had a vast trading network. Ships from the east traveled the Mediterranean protected by the Roman navy. Cities such as Corinth in Greece, Ephesus in Anatolia, and Antioch on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean grew wealthy. Rome also traded with China and India. A complex network of roads linked the empire to such far-flung places as Persia and southern Russia. These roads were originally built by the Roman army for mil- itary purposes. Trade also brought Roman ways to the provinces and beyond. The Roman World Throughout its history, Rome emphasized the values of discipline, strength, and loyalty. A person with these qualities was said to have the important virtue of grav- itas. The Romans were a practical people. They honored strength more than beauty, power more than grace, and usefulness more than elegance. Ancient Rome and Early Christianity 163  Page 5 of 6 Roman Emperors, A.D. 37–A.D. 180 Bad Emperors Good Emperors Caligula Nero Domitian Nerva Hadrian Marcus Aurelias 37–41 54–68 81–96 96–98 117–138 161–180 Mentally Good admin- Ruled Began custom Consolidated Brought empire disturbed istrator but dictatorially of adopting heir earlier conquests to height of vicious Feared treason Trajan Reorganized the economic Murdered many everywhere and 98–117 bureaucracy prosperity Persecuted executed many Empire reached Defeated Antoninus Pius Christians its greatest extent invaders 138–161 Undertook vast Wrote philosophy Reign largely a building program period of peace Enlarged social and prosperity welfare Most people in the Roman Empire lived in the countryside and worked on farms. In Rome and smaller cities, merchants, soldiers, slaves, foreigners, and philosophers all shared the crowded, noisy streets. Here, people from all walks of life came together to create a diverse society. Slaves and Captivity Slavery was a significant part of Roman life. It was widespread Caligula and important to the economy. The Romans made more use of slaves than any previ- Trajan ous civilization. Numbers of slaves may have reached as high as one-third of the pop- ulation. Most slaves were conquered peoples brought back by victorious Roman armies and included men, women, and children. Children born to slaves also became slaves. Slaves could be bought and sold. According to Roman law, slaves were the property of their owner. They could be punished, rewarded, set free, or put to death as their master saw fit. Slaves worked both in the city and on the farm. Many were treated cruelly and worked at hard labor all day long. Some—strong, healthy males—were forced to become gladiators, or professional fighters, who fought to the death in public contests. Other slaves, particularly those who worked in wealthy households, were better treated. Occasionally, slaves would rebel. None of the slave revolts succeeded. More than a million slaves lost their lives attempting to gain their freedom. Gods and Goddesses The earliest Romans worshiped powerful spirits or divine forces, called numina, that they thought resided in everything around them. Closely related to these spirits were the Lares (LAIR-eez), who were the guardian spirits of each family. They gave names to these powerful gods and goddesses and honored them through various rituals, hoping to gain favor and avoid misfortune. In Rome, government and religion were linked. The deities were symbols of the state. Romans were expected to honor them not only in private rituals at shrines in their homes but also in public worship ceremonies conducted by priests in temples. Among the most important Roman gods and goddesses were Jupiter, father of the gods; Juno, his wife, who supposedly watched over women; and Minerva, goddess of wisdom and of the arts and crafts. During the empire, worship of the emperor also became part of the official religion of Rome. Society and Culture By the time of the empire, wealth and social status made huge differences in how people lived. Classes had little in common. The rich lived extravagantly. They spent large sums of money on homes, gardens, slaves, and lux- uries. They gave banquets that lasted for many hours and included foods that were rare and costly, such as boiled ostrich and parrot-tongue pie. However, most people in Rome barely had the necessities of life. During the time of the empire, much of the city’s population was unemployed. The govern- ment supported these people with daily rations of grain. In the shadow of Rome’s 164 Chapter 6  Page 6 of 6 Gladiator Games Thumbs up or thumbs down—that is how a match often ended for a gladiator (shown in this mosaic battling a tiger). When one of the combatants fell, the organizer of the games usually determined his fate. A thumbs up sign from him meant that the fighter would live. Thumbs down meant his death. The crowd usually played a key role in these life-and-death decisions. If the masses liked the fallen gladiator, he most likely would live to fight another day. If not, he was doomed. great temples and public buildings, poor people crowded into rickety, sprawling tenements. Fire was a constant danger. To distract and control the masses of Romans, the government provided free games, races, mock battles, and gladiator contests. By A.D. 250, there were 150 hol- idays a year. On these days of celebration, the Colosseum, a huge arena that could hold 50,000, would fill with the rich and the poor alike. The spectacles they watched combined bravery and cruelty, honor and violence. In the animal shows, wild crea- tures brought from distant lands, such as tigers, lions, and bears, fought to the death. In other contests, gladiators engaged in combat with animals or with each other, often until one of them was killed. During this time of Pax Romana, another activity slowly emerged in the Roman Empire—the practice of a new religion known as Christianity. The early followers of this new faith would meet with much brutality and hardship for their beliefs. But their religion would endure and spread throughout the empire, and eventually become one of the dominant faiths of the world. SECTION 2 ASSESSMENT TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. civil war Julius Caesar triumvirate Augustus Pax Romana USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING 2. What changes do you 3. What factors contributed to the 6. ANALYZING CAUSES What role did Julius Caesar play in consider negative? Why? fall of the Roman Republic? the decline of the republic and the rise of the empire? 4. What were the main reasons 7. ANALYZING ISSUES What aspects of Roman society for the Romans’ success in remained similar from republic to empire? Changes in Rome controlling such a large 8. RECOGNIZING EFFECTS What was Augustus’s greatest. Dictator claims empire? contribution to Roman society? Why?.. sole power 5. What measures did the government take to distract 9. WRITING ACTIVITY EMPIRE BUILDING Write a brief dialogue in which various members of society comment and control the masses of on conditions in the Roman Empire during the Pax Rome? Romana. Participants might include a senator, a civil servant, a slave, a merchant, and a former soldier. CONNECT TO TODAY CREATING A POSTER Create a poster depicting the sporting events and other forms of entertainment that you enjoy watching. Include an introductory paragraph that explains what about them appeals to you. Ancient Rome and Early Christianity 165  Page 1 of 5 3 The Rise of Christianity MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES RELIGIOUS AND ETHICAL Christianity has spread Jesus Constantine SYSTEMS Christianity arose in throughout the world and today apostle bishop Roman-occupied Judea and has more than a billion Paul Peter spread throughout the Roman followers. Diaspora pope Empire. SETTING THE STAGE While religion played an important role in Roman society, the worship of Roman gods was impersonal and often practiced with- out a great deal of emotion. As the empire grew, so, too, did a new religion called Christianity. Born as a movement within Judaism, it emphasized a more personal relationship between God and people—and attracted many Romans. TAKING NOTES The Life and Teachings of Jesus Following Chronological Order Use a sequence Roman power spread to Judea, the home of the Jews, around 63 B.C. At first the graphic to showw the Jewish kingdom remained independent, at least in name. Rome then took control events that led to the of the Jewish kingdom in A.D. 6 and made it a province of the empire. A number spread of Christianity. of Jews, however, believed that they would once again be free. According to bib- lical tradition, God had promised that a savior known as the Messiah would Rome takes arrive and restore the kingdom of the Jews. Roughly two decades after the over Jewish beginning of Roman rule, many believed that such a savior had arrived. kingdom. Jesus of Nazareth Although the exact date is uncertain, historians believe that sometime around 6 to 4 B.C., a Jew named Jesus was born in the town of Bethlehem in Judea. Jesus was raised in the village of Nazareth in northern Palestine. He was baptized by a prophet known as John the Baptist. As a young man, he took up the trade of carpentry. At the age of 30, Jesus began his public ministry. For the next three years, he preached, taught, did good works, and reportedly performed miracles. His teach- ings contained many ideas from Jewish tradition, such as monotheism, or belief in only one god, and the principles of the Ten Commandments. Jesus emphasized God’s personal relationship to each human being. He stressed the importance of people’s love for God, their neighbors, their enemies, and even themselves. He also taught that God would end wickedness in the world and would establish an eternal kingdom after death for people who sincerely repented their sins. (Refer to pages 286–287 for more about Christianity.) A Growing Movement Historical records of the time mention very little about Jesus. The main source of information about his teachings are the Gospels, the first four books of the New Testament of the Bible. Some of the Gospels are thought to have been written by one or more of Jesus’ disciples, or pupils. These 12 men later came to be called apostles. 168 Chapter 6  Page 2 of 5 As Jesus preached from town to town, his fame grew. He attracted large crowds, and many people were touched by his message. Because Jesus ignored wealth and status, his message had special appeal to the poor. “Blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit the earth,” he said. His words, as related in the Gospels, were simple and direct: PRIMARY SOURCE Love your enemies, do good to those who hate you, bless those who curse you, and pray for those who mistreat you. If anyone hits you on the cheek, let him hit the other one too; if someone takes your coat, let him have your shirt as well. Give to everyone who asks you for something, and when someone takes what is yours, do not ask for it back. Do for others just what you want them to do for you. Luke 6:27–31 Jesus’ Death Jesus’ growing popularity concerned both Roman and Jewish leaders. When Jesus visited Jerusalem about A.D. 29, enthusiastic crowds greeted him as the Messiah, or king—the one whom the Bible had said would come to rescue the Jews. The chief priests of the Jews, however, denied that Jesus was the Messiah. They said his teachings were blasphemy, or contempt for God. The Roman gover- nor Pontius Pilate accused Jesus of defying the authority of Rome. Pilate arrested Jesus and sentenced him to be crucified, or nailed to a large wooden cross to die. After Jesus’ death, his body was placed in a tomb. According to the Gospels, three days later his body was gone, and a living Jesus began appearing to his fol- Hypothesizing lowers. The Gospels go on to say that then he ascended into heaven. The apostles Why did the followers of Jesus were more convinced than ever that Jesus was the Messiah. It was from this belief think he was the that Jesus came to be referred to as Jesus Christ. Christos is a Greek word meaning Messiah? “messiah” or “savior.” The name Christianity was derived from “Christ.” ▼ Christ’s Charge Christianity Spreads Through the Empire to Saint Peter by Renaissance Strengthened by their conviction that he had triumphed over death, the followers of artist Raphael Jesus continued to spread his ideas. Jesus’ teachings did not contradict Jewish law, and depicts Jesus call- his first followers were Jews. Soon, however, these followers began to create a new ing the apostle Peter to duty as religion based on his messages. Despite political and religious opposition, the new the other apostles religion of Christianity spread slowly but steadily throughout the Roman Empire. look on. 169  Page 3 of 5 Paul’s Mission One man, the apostle Paul, had enormous influence on Christianity’s development. Paul was a Jew who had never met Jesus and at first was an enemy of Christianity. While traveling to Damascus in Syria, he reportedly had a vision of Christ. He spent the rest of his life spreading and interpreting Christ’s teachings. The Pax Romana, which made travel and the exchange of ideas fairly safe, pro- vided the ideal conditions for Christianity to spread. Common languages—Latin and Greek—allowed the message to be easily understood. Paul wrote influential letters, called Epistles, to groups of believers. In his teaching, Paul stressed that Jesus was the son of God who died for people’s sins. He also declared that Christianity should welcome all converts, Jew or Gentile (non-Jew). It was this uni- versality that enabled Christianity to become more than just a local religion. Jewish Rebellion During the early years of Christianity, much Roman attention was focused on the land of Jesus’ birth and on the Jews. In A.D. 66, a band of Jews rebelled against Rome. In A.D. 70, the Romans stormed Mediterranean Jerusalem and destroyed the Temple complex. All that Sea GALILEE remained was a western portion of the wall, which today is the Jerusalem JUDEA holiest Jewish shrine. The Jewish fortress near Masada (see Dead Masada Sea map at right) held out until A.D. 73. About a half million Jews were killed in the course of this rebellion. The Jews made another attempt to break free of the Romans in A.D. 132. Another half-million Jews died in three years of fighting. Although the Jewish religion survived, the Jewish political state ceased to exist for more than 1,800 The Jewish Diaspora years. Most Jews were driven from their homeland into Centuries of Jewish exile followed exile. This dispersal of the Jews is called the Diaspora. the destruction of their temple and the fall of Jerusalem in A.D. 70. This Persecution of the Christians Christians also posed a period is called the Diaspora, from problem for Roman rulers. The main reason was that they the Greek word for “dispersal.” Jews refused to worship Roman gods. This refusal was seen as fled to many parts of the world, opposition to Roman rule. Some Roman rulers also used Vocabulary including Europe. Christians as scapegoats for political and economic troubles. Scapegoats are In the 1100s, many European Jews By the second century, as the Pax Romana began to groups or individ- were expelled from their homes. uals that innocently Some moved to Turkey, Palestine, crumble, persecution of the Christians intensified. Romans bear the blame for and Syria. Others went to Poland exiled, imprisoned, or executed Christians for refusing to others. and neighboring areas. worship Roman deities. Thousands were crucified, burned, The statelessness of the Jews or killed by wild animals in the circus arenas. Other did not end until the creation of Christians and even some non-Christians regarded perse- Israel in 1948. cuted Christians as martyrs. Martyrs were people willing to sacrifice their lives for the sake of a belief or a cause. A World Religion Despite persecution of its followers, Christianity became a powerful force. By the late third century A.D., there were millions of Christians in the Roman Empire and beyond. The widespread appeal of Christianity was due to a variety of reasons. Christianity grew because it Making embraced all people—men and women, enslaved persons, the poor, and nobles; Inferences gave hope to the powerless; Why were the citizens of the appealed to those who were repelled by the extravagances of imperial Rome; Roman Empire so offered a personal relationship with a loving God; drawn to promised eternal life after death. Christianity? 170 Chapter 6  Page 4 of 5 Spread of Christianity in the Roman World to A.D. 500 40°E 0° North Sea BRITAIN Rh Christian areas, 325 ine Additional Christian areas, 500 R. Boundary of Roman Empire, 395 D an ube R. ATLANTIC GAUL OCEAN Ca ITALY Black Sea spia Rome SPAIN Constantinople n Se Nicaea 40°N ARMENIA GREECE ANATOLIA Med a iter Corinth Hippo ran Antioch ea n SYRIA 0 500 Miles Sea JUDEA 0 1,000 Kilometers Jerusalem Alexandria EGYPT Nile R. Pe rsi na Gu Re GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps lf d 1. Location Where was Christianity most widespread in A.D. 325? Se 2. Region What was the extent (north to south, east to west) of a Christianity’s spread by A.D. 500? Constantine Accepts Christianity A critical moment in Christianity occurred in A.D. 312, when the Roman emperor Constantine was fighting three rivals for lead- ership of Rome. He had marched to the Tiber River at Rome to battle his chief rival. On the day before the battle at Milvian Bridge, Constantine prayed for divine help. He reported that he then saw an image of a cross—a symbol of Christianity. He ordered artisans to put the Christian symbol on his soldier’s shields. Constantine and his troops were victorious in battle. He credited his success to the help of the Christian God. In the next year, A.D. 313, Constantine announced an end to the persecution of Christians. In the Edict of Milan, he declared Christianity to be one of the religions approved by the emperor. Christianity continued to gain strength. In 380, the emperor Theodosius made it the empire’s official religion. Vocabulary Early Christian Church By this time, Christians had given their religion a struc- A hierarchy is a ture, much as the Roman Empire had a hierarchy. At the local level, a priest led group of persons each small group of Christians. A bishop, who was also a priest, supervised sev- organized in order eral local churches. The apostle Peter had traveled to Rome from Jerusalem and of ranks, with each level subject to the became the first bishop there. According to tradition, Jesus referred to Peter as the authority of the one “rock” on which the Christian Church would be built. As a result, all priests and above. bishops traced their authority to him. Eventually, every major city had its own bishop. However, later bishops of Rome claimed to be the heirs of Peter. These bishops said that Peter was the first pope, the father or head of the Christian Church. They said that whoever was bishop of Rome was also the leader of the whole Church. Also, as Rome was the capital of the empire, it seemed the logical choice to be the center of the Church. Ancient Rome and Early Christianity 171  Page 5 of 5 A Single Voice As Christianity grew, disagreements about beliefs developed among its followers. Church leaders called any belief that appeared to contradict the basic teachings a heresy. Dispute over beliefs became intense. In an attempt to end conflicts, Church leaders tried to set a single, official standard of belief. These beliefs were compiled in the New Testament, which contained the four Gospels, the Epistles of Paul, and other documents. The New Testament was added to the Hebrew Bible, which Christians called the Old Testament. In A.D. 325, Constantine moved to solidify further the teachings of Christianity. He called Church leaders to Nicaea in Anatolia. There they wrote the Nicene Creed, which defined the basic beliefs of the Church. The Fathers of the Church Also influential in defining Church teachings were several early writers and scholars who have been called the Fathers of the Church. One of the most important was Augustine, who became bishop of the city of Hippo in North Africa in 396. Augustine taught that humans needed the grace of God to be saved. He further taught that people could not receive God’s grace unless they belonged to the Church and received the sacraments. One of Augustine’s most famous books is The City of God. It was written after Rome was plundered in the fifth century. Augustine wrote that the fate of cities such as Rome was not important because the heavenly city, the city of God, could never be destroyed: PRIMARY SOURCE The one consists of those who live by human standards, the other of those who Analyzing Primary live according to God’s will.... By two cities I mean two societies of human Sources beings, one of which is predestined to reign with God for all eternity, the other is Why would St. doomed to undergo eternal punishment with the Devil. Augustine write his ST. AUGUSTINE, The City of God book after Rome had been attacked? While Christianity continued its slow but steady rise, the Roman Empire itself was gradually weakening. Under the weight of an increasing number of both foreign and domestic problems, the mighty Roman Empire eventually began to crumble. SECTION 3 ASSESSMENT TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. Jesus apostle Paul Diaspora Constantine bishop Peter pope USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING 2. What event do you think had 3. What did Jesus emphasize in 6. HYPOTHESIZING Do you think Christianity would have the biggest impact? Explain. his early teachings? developed in the same way if it had arisen in an area 4. Why did the early Christians outside the Roman Empire? Explain. Rome takes face persecution from the 7. FORMING AND SUPPORTING OPINIONS Who did more to over Jewish Romans? spread Christianity—Paul or Constantine? Why? kingdom. 5. What was the importance of 8. ANALYZING ISSUES Why do you think Roman leaders so the Nicene Creed? opposed the rise of a new religion among their subjects? 9. WRITING ACTIVITY RELIGIOUS AND ETHICAL SYSTEMS Imagine you are a resident of Judea during the time of Jesus. Write a letter to a friend in Rome describing Jesus and his teachings. CONNECT TO TODAY OUTLINING A SPEECH Locate a recent speech by the pope or the leader of another Christian church and outline its main ideas. Then read some of the speech to the class and discuss its main points. 172 Chapter 6  Page 1 of 4 4 The Fall of the Roman Empire MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES EMPIRE BUILDING Internal The decline and fall of great inflation Constantinople problems and invasions spurred civilizations is a repeating pattern mercenary Attila the division and decline of the in world history. Diocletian Roman Empire. SETTING THE STAGE In the third century A.D., Rome faced many problems. They came both from within the empire and from outside. Only drastic economic, military, and political reforms, it seemed, could hold off collapse. A Century of Crisis TAKING NOTES Analyzing Causes and Historians generally agree that the end of the reign of the emperor Marcus Recognizing Effects Aurelius (A.D. 161–180) marked the end of two centuries of peace and prosper- Identify the main causes ity, known as the Pax Romana. The rulers that followed in the next century had of the effects listed below. little or no idea of how to deal with the giant empire and its growing problems. As a result, Rome began to decline. Causes Effects Rome’s Economy Weakens During the third century A.D., several factors Inflation prompted the weakening of Rome’s economy. Hostile tribes outside the bound- Untrust- aries of the empire and pirates on the Mediterranean Sea disrupted trade. Having worthy army reached their limit of expansion, the Romans lacked new sources of gold and sil- ver. Desperate for revenue, the government raised taxes. It also started minting Political Instability coins that contained less and less silver. It hoped to create more money with the same amount of precious metal. However, the economy soon suffered from inflation, a drastic drop in the value of money coupled with a rise in prices. Agriculture faced equally serious problems. Harvests in Italy and western Europe became increasingly meager because overworked soil had lost its fertil- ity. What’s more, years of war had destroyed much farmland. Eventually, serious food shortages and disease spread, and the population declined. Military and Political Turmoil By the third century A.D., the Roman military was also in disarray. Over time, Roman soldiers in general had become less dis- ciplined and loyal. They gave their allegiance not to Rome but to their comman- ders, who fought among themselves for the throne. To defend against the increasing threats to the empire, the government began to recruit mercenaries, foreign soldiers who fought for money. While mercenaries would accept lower pay than Romans, they felt little sense of loyalty to the empire. Feelings of loyalty eventually weakened among average citizens as well. In the past, Romans cared so deeply about their republic that they willingly sacrificed their lives for it. Conditions in the later centuries of the empire caused citizens to lose their sense of patriotism. They became indifferent to the empire’s fate. Ancient Rome and Early Christianity 173  Page 2 of 4 Emperors Attempt Reform Remarkably, Rome survived intact for another 200 years. This was due largely to reform-minded emperors and the empire’s division into two parts. Diocletian Reforms the Empire In A.D. 284, Diocletian, a strong-willed army leader, became the new emperor. He ruled with an iron fist and severely limited personal freedoms. Nonetheless, he restored order to the empire and increased its strength. Diocletian doubled the size of the Roman army and sought to control inflation by setting fixed prices for goods. To restore the prestige of the office of emperor, he claimed descent from the ancient Roman gods and created elaborate ceremonies to present himself in a godlike aura. Diocletian believed that the empire had grown too large and too complex for one ruler. In perhaps his most significant reform, he divided the empire into the Greek- speaking East (Greece, Anatolia, Syria, and Egypt) and the Latin-speaking West (Italy, Gaul, Britain, and Spain). He took the eastern half for himself and appointed a co-ruler for the West. While Diocletian shared authority, he kept overall control. His half of the empire, the East, included most of the empire’s great cities and trade centers and was far wealthier than the West. Because of ill health, Diocletian retired in A.D. 305. However, his plans for orderly succession failed. Civil war broke out immediately. By 311, four rivals were compet- ing for power. Among them was an ambitious young commander named Constantine, the same Constantine who would later end the persecution of Christians. Constantine Moves the Capital Constantine gained control of the western part of the empire in A.D. 312 and continued many of the social and economic policies Multiple Causes: Fall of the Western Roman Empire Contributing Factors Political Social