NROB60 Lecture Content Review lecture 1.pdf

Explain the following study This experiment illustrates the reciprocal relationship between biology and behavior by showing how psychological perceptions can influence physiological responses. Participants were asked to drink the same milkshake but were shown two different labels: Label A, "Indulge...

Explain the following study This experiment illustrates the reciprocal relationship between biology and behavior by showing how psychological perceptions can influence physiological responses. Participants were asked to drink the same milkshake but were shown two different labels: Label A, "Indulgence," which suggested a rich and calorie-dense treat, and Label B, "Sensishake," which implied a healthier, low-calorie option. Even though both milkshakes were identical, participants' expectations based on the labels influenced their biological response. Researchers measured the levels of ghrelin, a hormone that signals hunger to the brain. Typically, ghrelin levels drop after eating, signaling satiety. Interestingly, 90 minutes after consuming the milkshake, participants who believed they had consumed the "Indulgence" milkshake (Label A) had lower ghrelin levels compared to those who thought they consumed the "Sensishake" (Label B). This suggests that the mere perception of indulging in a high-calorie treat led to a stronger biological response of satiety, whereas those who believed they had a healthier option did not experience as much of a hormonal drop. The experiment highlights how behavior and psychological states, such as expectation, can directly influence biological processes, illustrating the powerful connection between mind and body. Animal models play a critical role in neuroscience research by allowing scientists to investigate the biological basis of brain function, behavior, and neurological disorders in ways that are not feasible in humans due to ethical and practical limitations. Many animal species, such as mice, rats, and non-human primates, share fundamental similarities with human brain structure, neural pathways, and genetic makeup, making them valuable for studying complex processes like synaptic plasticity, learning, memory, and neural degeneration. Animal models are also essential for developing and testing potential treatments for neurological diseases like Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and epilepsy. However, there are notable limitations. The complexity of the human brain, particularly in higher cognitive functions, cannot be fully replicated in animal models, which can lead to challenges in translating findings to human contexts. Behavioral and neurological differences between species may mean that certain models don't fully capture how a disease manifests or progresses in humans. Additionally, ethical concerns arise regarding the welfare and treatment of animals in research, which has led to growing interest in alternative methods such as in vitro models and computational approaches. ey Historical Figures in euroscience Hippocrates Phineas Gage Among first to believe brain controlled human Damage to OFC resulted in personality thought change; first to show that there is a region of the brain associated with personality Galen Paul Broca concluded that the brain controlled cognition and willed action. The initial evidence for this doctrine Damage to Broca’s area results in was that the brain was the site of termination of all impairments with regards to speaking of the five senses: touch, taste, smell, sight, and fluently hearing. Carl Wernicke Descartes Damage to Wernicke’s area results in first model of how brain controls behaviors (soul impairments with regards to speech controlled body in the pineal gland; proved wrong comprehension centuries later)  William James B.F Skinner Franz Joseph Gall Declared psych should be studied Developed apparatus called the Discovered phrenology via biology; behavioural Skinner box; studied reinforcement (pseudoscience); important in modifications behaviours in animals acknowledging the idea that certain cognitive functions are localized to different brain regions  Microscopic Sectioning Histology Lesion Methods Histology is the study of the fixed tissue is sliced using a Sectioning allows researchers to Lesions refer to injuries or microscopic structures of tissues. It microtome, and different stains are observe the structural organization damage to neural tissue, involves examining thinly sliced applied to highlight specific and connections of individual cells which can disrupt normal tissue samples under a microscope features, such as myelin. These within the brain. This process brain function. These to analyze their organization, staining techniques enable involves tissue fixation to preserve injuries may be caused by composition, and cellular structure. researchers to visualize various the biological material, slicing the trauma, disease, or This field is essential for structural components of the brain. tissue using a microtome machine, surgical interventions and understanding how tissues function Additionally, optical imaging and applying specialized stains that can affect specific brain in both normal and diseased states, technologies can be used to create a highlight specific cellular regions or neural providing insights into biological "see-through brain," allowing for the components or structures.. pathways. processes and pathology. detailed observation of brain architecture in three dimensions without obscuring internal features.  Imaging Techniques CT fMRI uses X-rays to create detailed cross-sectional images of the brain, primarily to detect measures brain activity by structural abnormalities. detecting changes in blood flow. PET measures metabolic activity by detecting radioactive tracers, revealing functional DTI processes like glucose metabolism. MRI specialized form of MRI that maps white matter tracts, showing the connections between provides high-resolution images of brain different brain regions. structures using magnetic fields and radio waves,  ethods of recording brain's electrical and magnetic output ERP Single-Cell MEG EEG Recording records electrical activity technique that analyzes detects magnetic fields involves measuring the from the brain’s surface EEG data to measure brain generated by neural electrical activity of using electrodes, responses to specific activity, providing real-time individual neurons, offering commonly used to study stimuli, providing insight data on brain function with detailed information on brain waves into cognitive processes high temporal resolution. how specific cells respond to stimuli.  TMS Optogenetics Genetic Studies Non-invasive technique that uses magnetic involve analyzing genes and their fields to stimulate specific brain regions, Optogenetics combines genetic variations to understand their allowing researchers to study the effects of engineering with light to control neuron influence on brain function, brain activity on behavior and cognition. activity with precision, enabling behavior, and susceptibility to While TMS is primarily used to stimulate researchers to manipulate specific neural neurological disorders, providing areas of the brain, it can also temporarily circuits and observe their effects on insights into the biological disrupt or alter brain function in the behavior in real-time underpinnings of various conditions targeted region, inducing changes in neural activity that may inhibit normal processing.