Qualitative Research Paradigms PDF

Study Unit 2: concepts Introducing Qualitative Research (Paradigms) Introducing Qualitative Research (Paradigms) Symbolic interactionism Coming to terms with ontology: what is reality? Umbrella term for a variety of related th...

Study Unit 2: concepts Introducing Qualitative Research (Paradigms) Introducing Qualitative Research (Paradigms) Symbolic interactionism Coming to terms with ontology: what is reality? Umbrella term for a variety of related theoretical 3 distinct ontological positions: realism, idealism, concepts. materialism. Focus: subjective understanding and the o Realism: claims that there is an external reality perceptions of and about people, symbol, and which exists independently (distinction between objects. the way the world works and the Human beings account for meaning in 2 ways: meaning/interpretation of the world). 1. Intrinsically attached to object, event, o Materialism: claims that there is a real world but phenomena. only material features (e.g. economic relations); 2. Physical accretion imposed on objects, values, beliefs, experiences considered as events, and the like by people. epiphenomena, that do not shape the material Meaning allows people to produce various world. realities that constitutes the sensory world, but o Idealism: claims that reality is only knowable because these realities are related to how people through the human mind and through socially create meaning, reality becomes an interpretation constructed meanings. of various definitional options. Postpositivist Behaviour is interpreted and that creates a social Postpositivist and critical theory occupy the space bond (definition of the situation). between positivism and constructivism. Symbolic interactionism neglects the macrolevel All knowledge is fallible but not equally fallible of social interpretation (may miss the larger issues (reality does exist but never perfectly understood). of society by focusing on ‘the trees rather than the Objectivity: an ideal that can never be achieved and forest’). research is conducted with a greater awareness of Critical theory subjectivity. Related to radical humanism and radical Post-positivism: the social world is patterned and fundamentalism. casual relationships can be discovered and tested Believed that research is conducted for the via reliable strategies. emancipation of individuals and groups in an Assume reality is multifaceted, subjective, and egalitarian society mentally constructed by individuals. Critical theory is adequate only if it meets 3 Reality is not a fixed entity; therefore, reality does things: it must be explanatory, practical, and not exist in a vacuum but is influenced by the normative. context. According to this theory, researchers should be Post positivism focuses on finding the absolute truth looking at political and economical foundations of through the establishment of generalisation. our construction of knowledge, curriculum and Interpretivism teaching with the aim of changing these Anti-positive paradigm developed through the foundations in the interest of the emancipation of reaction to positivism. the oppressed. Constructism (individual constructs the meaning). Postmodern perspective Try to develop a single correct Rejects the emphasis on rational discovery meaning/interpretation. through the scientific method (replaces this with Influenced by phenomenology (approach that respect for difference and a celebration of local advocated the needs to consider the subjective and particular at the expense of the universal. interpretations of human beings and their Views facts and values as interactive. perceptions of the world; reality is not objectively Rejects the possibility that we can have objective determined, but socially constructed. knowledge. Interprevists perspectives are based on: Rejects the idea of a fixed universal and Human life can only be understood from within: it foundation of reality. cannot be observed from an external reality. The idea of a socially constructed reality leads Social life is a distinctively human product: assume directly to a radical in idea of method. reality is not objectively determined, but is socially Epistemology: How can we know? constructed. Relates to how things can be known-how The human mind is a purposive origin of meaning: truths/facts/physical laws, if they do exist, can be by exploring the richness, depth and complexity of discovered and disclosed. phenomena, we can begin to develop a sense of First debate is the relationship between the understanding. researcher and the researched. No objective Human behaviour is affected by knowledge of the knowledge can be created. social world Second debate is the objectivity of the knowledge- The social world does not exist independently of Third debate is the findings in the research human knowledge. generalised or not. Describe the goal, objectives, research Describe the goal, objectives, research question/hypothesis of social research question/hypothesis of social research Types of research objectives Types of research questions Exploration: involves using mainly inductive methods to discover a concept, construct, phenomenon, or situation and advance understanding, hypotheses or generalisations. Description: involves identifying and describing the antecedents, nature, and aetiology of a phenomenon. Explanation: involved developing theory for the purpose of explaining the relationship among concepts/phenomena and determining reasons for the existence of events. Influence: relates to manipulation of the setting or variable to produce an anticipated outcome. Four criteria for a good research question 1. They relate directly to the statement of purpose. 2. They are connected logically. 3. They are linked conceptually through key terms which appear in each question. 4. They are self-explanatory and clear to outside readers, and can stand on their own as Hypothesis of social research researchable questions. H= hypothesis. Empirical vs ethical questions Null hypothesis= nothing happens, no impact. Alternative hypothesis= something happens Empirical questions can be answered by real o Directional hypothesis= x improves y positively/ x experience in the real world. impacts y negatively (very specific or just direction). Ethical questions which people have moral o Non-directional hypothesis= predication is made, opinions and that may not be answerable in without specifying the exact form of difference. reference to the real world. Qualitative research question Describe the goal, objectives, research Seek to explore/describe phenomena, general question/hypothesis of social research and vaguely worded. Purposes of social work research Only include one concept. Exploration (exploratory) Instead of asking how one variable causes New interest- relatively new and unstudied or want change in another, we are instead trying to to study the topic more carefully. understand the experiences, understandings, and Gain insight into situation, phenomenon, community meanings that people have about the concepts in or individual. our research question. Lack of basic info new area of interest. These questions are non-directional and use Ask ‘what’ questions. words that state that the study will: o Used in qualitative mostly, sometimes ‘discover’ (grounded theory), ‘explain’ or ‘seek to quantitative understand’ (ethnography), ‘explore a process’ Description (Descriptive) (case study) or ‘describe the experiences’ Presents picture of specific details of situation, social (phenomenology). setting or relationship. Criteria known as FINER, characteristics of Answering “how” question. qualitative research: o Sample A descriptive study might assess patterns of social o Phenomena of interest work students after they graduate. o Design evaluation Different types of descriptive studies o Research type o Qualitative Description: Description are more likely to refer to thicker examination of the phenomena and their deeper meaning. More concern with conveying a sense of what it’s like to walk in the shoes of person described this includes details like environment, interactions, meanings and everyday lives- rather than generalising the population. Describe the goal, objectives, research Types of research: Basic and Applied question/hypothesis of social research Basic: research design too adds to our Purposes of social work research fundamental understanding and knowledge of the Explanation (Explanatory) social world regardless of practical or immediate Issue already known, has clear description, ask applications. “why”. Applied: research intended to be useful in the Build on explanatory and descriptive studies. immediate future and to suggest action or increase Form of testing a hypothesis. effectiveness in some area. Testing= increase the number of explanatory activity Research process (can also have an evaluation purpose). Evaluation Evaluation of policies. Combine first three elements. Focus on effectiveness of something (dependent variables and indicators). Evaluative studies, commonly ask whether social policies, programs or services are effective in achieving the stated goals. Evaluation of goal achievement can be done in an explanatory, descriptive or explanatory way. NB: don’t call something explanatory unless the study explains something Constructing measurement instruments Some studies aim to develop and test measurement instruments that can be used by other researcher or by practitioners as part of the assessment or evaluation aspects of their practice. The research questions implicit in these studies contrast with the types of research questions discusses so far. Multiple purposes If we are asking for the purpose of generating new ideas about possible reasons that can be examined later in a more rigorous explanatory study, then the purpose is explanatory. In an attempt to differentiate exploratory and Steps for generic research process explanatory purposes you might consider two 1. Broad: research problem and research question. additional research purposes: Understanding and 2. Problem formulation: predicting. i. Literature review influences problem If your study is seeking to develop a beginning identification and theoretical framework. understanding of a phenomenon, it is more likely to ii. Identify the research purpose(s). be exploratory than explanatory. iii. Conceptualisation of research question(s)/hypothesis(es). 3. Research approach and design plus data collection methods i. Approach: quan, qual, mixed methods. ii. Designs: quan, qual, mixed methods. iii. Sampling plan: probability, non-probability. iv. Data collection methods and data collection instrument. 4. Research proposal and ethical clearance. 5. Implement design and data collection. 6. Process data (raw data needs to transcribe). 7. Analyse data (conclusions reached, implications of policy and practice). 8. Write and submit report.  Study Unit 6:Qualitative research Qualitative research design Qualitative research designs Narrative study Case study Definition: Focuses on collection and analysis of life Definition: An empirical inquiry focused on a stories and experiences. phenomenon within its real-world context. Focus: Understanding how individuals make sense of Focus: A single bounded entity (person, their lives. organisation, event) within a blurred boundary of Data collection: Primarily interviews and documents context. (letters, autobiographies), sometimes internet Data collection: multiple sources like interviews, sources. documents, observations, and archival records. Types: Constructivist paradigm: recognises the importance o Biographical study: writes and records the of subjective human creation of meaning but does experiences of another person’s life. not outright reject some notion of objectivism. o Auto-ethnography: contains the personal story of Pluralism the author as well as the larger cultural meaning How and why questions of the individual’s story. Types: o Life history: portrays an individual’s entire life, o Explanatory: Explains casual links in complex single, or multiple episodes, private experiences. real-life interventions. o Oral history: consists of gathering personal o Exploratory: Evaluates interventions with no reflections or events and their causes and effects clear outcomes. from one individual’s or several individuals; o Descriptive: Describes a phenomenon and its testimonies. context. Components: o Multiple-case: Explores differences across o Scene: the place where the action occurs, where cases. characters are formed and live out their stories o Intrinsic: Focuses on understanding a unique and where culture and social context play case. constraining and enabling roles. o Instrumental: Helps refine theory through case o Plot: time is essential, they mark the structure of examination. the story with a basic explanatory plot structure of Methodology: Focused on in-depth, real-world beginning, middle, and end. behaviour with data from natural settings. In most narrative studies, interviews conducted Ethnography between researcher and participant form the Definition: Describes and interprets the values, backbone of the research. behaviours, beliefs, and language of a culture- Transcripts are made of these interviews, and these sharing group. are made available to the participant for future Focus: Describing and interpreting the shared discussion, become part of the ongoing narrative culture of a group, often within their natural record. environment. Phenomenology Data collection: Primarily observations and Definition: Explores the meaning of lived experiences interviews, including artefacts, over extended field around a phenomenon. time (6-12 months). Focus: Identifying common experiences among Methodology individuals who share a phenomenon. o Naturalism: The researcher tries to be invisible Types and not cause disruptions. o Hermeneutic: research as oriented towards lived o Trust: Builds credibility through extended experience and interpreting the ‘texts’ of life fieldwork. interpreting process Grounded theory 1. Identifying the phenomena. Definition: Develops or discovers a theory 2. They reflect on the essential themes which grounded in data. may constitute the nature of the lived Focus: Generation of theory from systemically experiences. collected data. 3. They write a description of the phenomena. Data collection: Interviews with 20-30 participants 4. They then interpret the phenomena. to saturate categories, theory is generated o Transcendental/psychological: focused less on the inductively. interpretations of the researcher and more on the Focus on development. description of the essence of experiences of the Methodology participants o Inductive rather than deductive. 1. Researcher puts own experience aside. o Data collection and analysis occur 2. Collect data from multiple people who simultaneously to refine the emerging theory. experienced the phenomenon. o Systemic procedure: develops a theory around 3. Analyse point of themes. processes or actions. 4. Textural description: what was experienced o Constructivist approach: emphasises diverse 5. Structural description: how were the realities and flexible guidelines. conditions, situations, context.  Study Unit 7: Study population and sampling Define the concepts study population, sampling, Different non-probability sampling methods. sample. Convenience sampling Study population: the total population of the group Availability sampling. that you want to study (all participants with specific Accessibility and availability of participants. characteristics that could be included in the study). Less costly in terms of time, effort, and money (may Sampling: process of collecting the sample for the not deemed credible). study; used to select the sample of the participants Refers to situations where population elements are from the population. selected based on the fact that they are easily Sample: the participants that take part in the study; available. people who will be recruited to take part int the Useful in exploratory research. study through interviews/focus group discussions. Critical case sampling Involves cases chosen on the basis that they The difference between probability and non- demonstrate a phenomenon or position probability sampling. dramtically/pivotal to understanding offered by Probability sampling: based on principles of research. randomness and probability theory; every member of Evaluative research as it draws attention to the population has a known, non-zero chance of particular features of a process. being scaled. Extreme case sampling Non-probability sampling: not based on Chosen because they are unusual or randomness; the sample size if not determined at special/potentially enlightening. the onset of the study but relies on data saturation. Learning about a phenomenon is heightened by looking at exceptions/extremes. Data saturation explained. Heterogenous sampling A point during the interview when the researcher Maximum variation sampling. realises that no new information is being garnered Used where there is a deliberate strategy to include from the participants and may decide to discontinue phenomena and participants which vary widely. the interview. Homogenous sampling Theoretical saturation: occurs when all the main Individuals who belong to the same subculture or variations of the phenomenon have been identified have the same characteristics are chosen to give a and incorporated into the emerging theory. detailed picture of a particular phenomenon. Depends on research question, type of research Intensity sampling design, the skill and experience of the researcher Strongly represents the phenomena of interest and the time and funds available to conduct the rather than unusual cases. research. Quota sampling Problems: First identify categories of people that need to be in o Sample too few participants so that theoretical the sample and the required number in these saturation cannot be achieved. categories. o End the data collection too soon before data Ensuring certain characteristics are represented by saturation had been reached. setting quotas. o Did not collect rich data that will enable thick Proportional: recruit elements proportional to the descriptions. population. o Do not employ a purposive sampling strategy Non-proportional: recruit elements regardless of the that fits the research design/question/ actual proportions in the population. Funnelling approach: purposefully select more Snowballing sampling participants than would be needed and conduct an Participants recruit other participants, often used in exploratory interview with each. hard-to-reach populations. Starting point is making contact with one/more people who belong to the population. Cycle continues till saturation. People interviewed and then asked about others who have the same characteristics and who can be contacted next. Exploratory studies. Stratified purposive sampling Hybrid approach aimed to select groups that display variations on a popular phenomenon, but each of which is fairly homogeneous so that subgroups can be compared. Different non-probability sampling methods. Theoretical sampling Used in grounded theory, where the researcher samples incidents, people/units on the basis of their potential contribution to the development and testing of theoretical constructs. Process is iterative: researcher picks an initial sample, analyses the data and then selects a further sample in order to refine the categories and theories. Process is continued until the researcher reaches data saturation. Typical case sampling Represents cases which characterise positions that are normal/average to enable detailed profiling. This requirement prior knowledge about overall patterns of response so that it is known what can be regarded as typical. Purposive sampling Used in special situations where the sampling is done with a specific purpose in mind. Intentional selection of ‘informants’ based on their ability to explain a specific theme/concept. Judgemental sampling (based on the judgement of the researcher). Pre-selected inclusion criteria. 6 criteria: 1. Sampling criteria should be relevant to the conceptual framework and the research questions. 2. Sample should likely generate rich information. 3. The sample should enhance the transferability of the findings. 4. The sample should produce credible descriptions. 5. The sample should take ethical preconditions into consideration. 6. Sampling should be feasible in terms of money and time, and practical issues of accessibility have to be considered.  Data collection for qualitative research Study Unit 9: Data Collection Interviews Two-way conversation where the interviewer Data collection for qualitative research asks the participants questions to collect data Documents of textual data and learn about ideas, beliefs, views, opinions, All types of written communications that will provide and behaviours of participants. information on the phenomenon being investigated Types: (printed/digital). o Open-ended/unstructured: informal, Published/unpublished documents, company conversational interviews that allow reports, emails, blogs, journals etc. participants to speak freely. Difference between primary and secondary sources o Semi-structured: open questions, with the o Primary: unpublished data, and research interviewer probing further as needed. gathered directly (original documents). o Structured: pre-determined, standardised o Secondary: any materials that are based on questions offering little flexibility. previously published works, and very often, form Types of probing: the basis of a lit review. o Detailed-orientated probes: understand who, Advantages where, what. o Cost-effective o Elaborate probes: understand the full-picture, o Useful for verifying or validating other data ask participants to share more on the topic. (triangulation). o Clarification probes: check to ensure you o Helps in reconstructing events. accurately understand. Disadvantages Advantages: o Documents might be outdated or incomplete. o Provides in-depth insights into participants’ o Potential bias in document views, experiences, and beliefs. selection/interpretation. o Flexible, allowing researchers to probe deeply. o Access to certain documents might be limited o One-on-one interaction allows for a safe due to restrictions or privacy. space to discuss sensitive issues. Focus groups Disadvantages: A moderator directs discussions among 5-12 o Time-consuming for the researcher and people with the purpose of collecting in-depth participant. qualitative data about a group’s perspective, o Risk of interviewer bias. attitude and experiences on a defined topic. o Data can be difficult to analyse due to depth Popular structure- funnel structure: start with the and diversity of responses. broad and less structured set of questions to ease Advantages of capturing information accurately: participants into the situation. o Helps researcher develop and gain insights Goal: hear participants’ general perspectives and and knowledge in a particular area of study. ease them into a debate. o Researchers might develop hypotheses for Moderator should use probing to steer discussion. future research. Ending is narrowest and most structured question. o Insights from research facilitates the Provide valuable information on how people talk establishment of appropriate social work about a topic and respond to a topic. interventions. Limitations Disadvantages of not capturing information o Focus group might be small and not accurately: reprehensive of the population. o Misleading. o Groupthink can occur. o Inaccurate interpretation. o Too much moderation can lead to not hearing o Researchers may develop incorrect what participants say. hypotheses. Advantages Using a translator o Generates rich, detailed data. o Back translation: the original translation is o Can help refine and focus future research obtained by input into a target language and questions. then retranslating the resulting text back into o Useful for understanding group dynamics and the original language. collective views on a topic. o The effectiveness of back translation is based Recording of data: taking notes, recording, non- on the assumption that when back translation verbal cues, video, transcripts (question-by- is correct, the target language translation but question format) (oral + observed data). also be correct. Data collection for qualitative research Data collection for qualitative research Observation Secondary data analysis Everyday activity where we use our senses but Involves reanalysing data for new purposes. also intuition to gather bits of data. Allows researchers to explore a new perspective Used to enable the researcher to gain deeper or questions with already-collected data. insight into and understanding of the Researchers must ensure that the original data phenomenon being observed. aligns with the new research questions, and Researcher should be conscious of own biases. assess the quality and relevance of the original Types study (time frame, sampling methods, original 5. Complete observation: no-participation 1. research goals). observation, because the researcher is not Ethical considerations: secondary researchers immersed in the situation they never fully should verify that original consent was obtained, understand. respect participants’ privacy, and accurately 6. Observer as a participant: researcher 2. interpret the data based on the original context. participates but focuses mainly on the role as Advantages: observer, remains uninvolved in the setting. o Cost-effective and time-efficient. 7. Participant as observer: become part of the 3. o Useful for verifying or expanding on the research process and work with participants. findings of the original research. 8. Complete participant: completely immersed in 4. o Provides an opportunity to explore new the setting so that those being observed do questions with existing data. not know they are participants of an Disadvantages: observation. o Ethical issues arise if consent was not Recording observations obtained for use. 4. Anecdotal records: short descriptions. 1. o Misinterpretation of data due to a lock of 5. Running records: continuous accounts. 2. familiarity with the original context or 6. Structured records: predetermined 3. methodology. behaviours. o Researchers limited by quality and scope of Field notes: should be written immediately and original data. reflect both behavioural and verbal observations. Advantages: o Provides first-hand data on behaviour and interactions in a natural setting. o Useful for understanding how people interact in real-world situations. o Offer insights into context, processes, and group dynamics. Disadvantages: o Time-consuming and can be difficult to arrange. o Observers can influence the behaviour of participants. o Subjectivity and bias can affect how observations are recorded and interpretated. Photovoice Description and reflection o Description – thick descriptions of what actually takes place; non-judgmental; o Reflection – the researcher’s thoughts or ideas about the meaning of what was observed o How do I know that what I have observed was in fact what happened? Member checking – verify our observations with those observed. o More than one observer observing o Triangulation – compare observations with other data collected  Study Unit 11: Data Analysis Content analysis A systemic method to compress large text into fewer content categories based on explicit rules. Reflective Thematic Analysis Can be applied to text, drawings, or observed Easily accessible and theoretically flexible actions. interpretative approach to qualitative data analysis that facilitates the identification and analysis of Focuses on manifest content (explicit, obvious patterns/themes in a given data set. content) and latent content (underlying meaning). Suitable for qualitative descriptive studies. Reflexive thematic analysis is considered a reflection of the researcher’s interpretive analysis of the data Helps discover and describe actions, contexts, conducted at the intersection of: and relationships. o the dataset Efficient for handling large amounts of datasets o the theoretical assumptions of the analysis using computer-assisted technologies. o the analytical skills/resources of the researcher Six phases Conversation analysis 1. Familiarisation of data: The researcher becomes Studies the order and structure of talk in familiar with the dataset by reading and re- interactions. reading it. This involved identifying semantic Focuses on naturally occurring language and the (explicit meanings) and latent codes (hidden sequential patterns in conversation, using audio meanings), which require interpretive effort. recordings and transcripts. 2. Generating initial codes: The researcher creates Extends linguistic analysis to non-verbal brief, descriptive, or interpretive codes from the interactions and communicative events. data, systemically coding the entire dataset. Examines the social organisation of conversation These codes are the building blocks for later and interactions in both casual and institutional themes and must capture essential aspects contexts. relevant to the research question. 3. Generating themes: After coding, the researcher groups related codes into themes or sub-themes Discourse analysis by identifying patterns or common meanings. Analyses written and spoken words to reveal how Themes are actively constructed by the power, dominance, inequality, and bias are researcher rather than pre-existing in the data. A created and sustained in society. thematic map may be created to organise these Discourse is seen as a structuring language themes. according to social patterns, with discourses 4. Reviewing potential theme: Themes are shaping knowledge and power. reviewed and refined on how well they represent There are multiple approaches within discourse the data and research questions. This phase analysis, including critical discourse analysis, involves checking fir coherence among the which looks at how texts relate to broader social, codes and ensuring the themes provide economic, and political contexts. meaningful insight. Unfit themes/codes may be Aims to uncover hidden ideological assumptions discarded. in communication. 5. Defining and naming themes: the researcher finalises and names each theme, ensuring each Hermeneutics provides a clear, coherent account of the data A qualitative research philosophy and approach while contributing to the overall narrative. Data for understanding textual data. extracts are selected to illustrate the theme, and Based on the hermeneutic circle, moving these extracts are deeply analysed in context. between understanding the whole text and its 6. Producing the report: the analysis report is parts to interpret meaning. produced, integrating the themes into a logical, Involves deciphering the hidden meaning within coherent narrative. The writing process is the apparent or literal meaning. recursive and evolves throughout the analysis, Focuses on rich textual data, aiming to make building a well-documented and reflective sense of the ‘bigger picture’ through detailed account of the data. interpretation. Can be used in both pure hermeneutics and critical hermeneutics  Study Unit 12: Data Quality Trustworthiness in qualitative data Four criteria for trustworthiness Trustworthiness in qualitative data 4. Confirmability: degree that results can be Four criteria for trustworthiness generalised or transferred to other contexts or 1. Credibility: confidence that results (from participants’ settings. perspective) are true, credible, and believable. Strategies to increase confirmability: Deal with the questions: how congruent are the triangulation and reducing researcher bias. findings with reality? How do I ensure that the To reduce researcher bias, researchers need reader will believe my findings? to admit their own predisposition. Strategies for credibility: The more they become involved with the o Adoption of well-established research research participants and with the study, the methods. greater the risk of bias creeping into the o Research design that fits the research study. question. Audit trail: allows any observer to trace the o Theoretical underpinning that is aligned with course of the research step by step via the the research question and the methods. decision made and procedures described. o Enhanced through the development but also well-defined, purposive sampling, detailed data collection methods, and triangulation. o Member checks and reflective notes o You may ask participants to verify the data gathered in interviews. o Enhanced through thick descriptions of the phenomenon. 2. Transferability: Ensure findings are repeatable if the study done with the same participants, coders, and contexts. Does not involve generalised claims but invites readers of research to make connections Strategies to ensure trustworthiness in between elements of a study and their own qualitative data experience or research. Prolonged engagement in the field To increase transferability, focus on: Immersing oneself in the participants’ world o How typical the participants are to the context allows the researcher to understand the context being studied. and minimise information distortion. o The context to which the findings apply. Extended time in the field fosters trust with The participants need to be typical of the respondents and deeper insight into their culture phenomenon being studied. and context. Researcher needs to provide a complete Researchers should spend 6-8 months in the understanding of the context being studied. field, with an evaluation 6-8 months post- Two strategies to increase transferability: intervention to assess any changes. o Thick descriptions: researcher provide a Use of peer debriefing reader with a full and purposeful account of Peer debriefing involves presenting study findings the context, participants and the research to peers for feedback to enhance the quality of design so that the readers can make their own the inquiry. decisions about transferability. It helps researchers test their insights and o Purposeful sampling: careful thought should improve the inquiry by receiving scholarly be given to selecting the participants in the guidance from colleagues or professionals. terms of the phenomenon or context being Triangulation studied. Uses multiple methods, sources, or researchers 3. Dependability: confidence that results would be to validate the data and reduce bias. confirmed or corroborated by other researchers. Investigator triangulation: multiple researchers Used in preference to reliability. study the same problem. Demonstrated through research design and its Data triangulation: different sources of data or implementation, the operational detail of data- informants. gathering, and the reflective appraisal of the Methodological triangulation: different research project. methods used. Keep a journal of decisions during research process (data collection and analysis nb). Document category labels created, revisions to categories and observations concerning data. Analysis process should be documented so that another person can see decisions made and how it was done. Strategies to ensure trustworthiness in qualitative Pilot studies in qualitative research data Informal, involving a few respondents with similar Member checks characteristics to those of the main study, to check Involves participants in reviewing and confirming if relevant data can be obtained. the researcher’s analysis and interpretations to Provides an opportunity to refine data collection ensure accuracy. tools, improve interviewing skills, and establish Helps eliminate researcher bias and increases communication with potential participants. credibility. Can be considered a full study on a small scale, Negative case analysis requiring clear plans for data use and adherence Addresses contradictory data to refine the research to ethical principles. question and improve study rigor. Purpose Reporting negative cases strengthens credibility by A pilot test is a trial run conducted before the main considering alternative explanations. study to check and improve research tools (like Persistent observation interview guides). Focuses on an in-depth study to gain a detailed It helps identify adjustments, such as the order, understanding of participants’ qualities. structure, and wording of questions, to better Extended interaction helps minimise the effects of achieve study goals. the researcher’s presence and improves The pilot study also helps detect ethical and understanding of the participant’s worldview. practical issues that might hinder the main study. Transferability Refers to the extent to which qualitative findings can be applied to other contexts. Achieved through ‘thick description’ and purposive sampling, which provide detailed contextual information for comparison to other settings. Thick description Involves detailed documentation of research processes and context to allow other researchers to replicate or compare findings in different contexts. Dependability Refers to the stability of findings over time and is established through peer feedback, triangulation, and techniques like audit trails or stepwise replication. Audit trail A detailed record of research decisions and activities, enabling an external auditor to validate the inquiry process and findings. Code-recode strategy The researcher codes the same data twice, with a gestation period in between, to check for consistency and improve dependability. Study Unit 13: Ethical considerations Voluntary participation and informed consent Participants should freely choose to participate after being fully informed of the study's purpose and potential risks. Informed consent cannot waive legal rights or responsibilities. Gatekeepers Individuals who control access to research participants. Understanding gatekeepers' concerns and responsibilities is essential, but they can also limit access and scope of research. Anonymity and confidentiality Anonymity: Ensures that responses cannot be linked to specific participants, though full anonymity is rare in interviews. Confidentiality: Researchers can identify respondents but promise not to disclose their identities. Techniques include removing personal identifiers from data. Deception Sometimes used in research but should be justified. Participants should be debriefed after deception, explaining the study's true purpose to avoid negative consequences. Institutional review boards (IRBs) Panels review research involving human subjects to ensure risks are minimal. Researchers must often obtain informed consent from participants after disclosing potential risks. No harm Research should not harm participants. Ethical research involves respecting participants, avoiding harm, and ensuring fair distribution of research benefits and burdens. Positionality Refers to the researcher’s relationship to the culture they study. A researcher can be an insider or outsider, influencing their understanding and biases in the research. Ubuntu An African philosophy emphasizing interconnectedness. Research should be based on communal discourse and respect for participants, with long-term relationships and reciprocity. Cultural sensitivity Research should respect participants' cultural beliefs and languages. Using qualified interpreters and ensuring culturally sensitive methodologies are important for accuracy and respect.