Environmental Science & Engineering Notes PDF

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & ENGINEERING  Learning content I. Ecological Concepts II. Pollution Environments III. Environmental Management System  Midterms Unit I. Ecological Concepts 1.1 Introduction to Environmental Science and Engineering 1.2 Ecology a...

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & ENGINEERING  Learning content I. Ecological Concepts II. Pollution Environments III. Environmental Management System  Midterms Unit I. Ecological Concepts 1.1 Introduction to Environmental Science and Engineering 1.2 Ecology and Ecosystems 1.3 Biogeochemical Cycles Unit II. Pollution Environments 2.1 Water Environment and Management 2.2 Air Environment and Management 2.3 Solid Waste and Management 2.4 Toxic and Hazardous Waste Treatment  Finals Unit III. Environmental Management System 3.1 Background of Environmental Impact Assessment 3.2 Philippine Environmental Impact Statement System (PEISS) Policy and Operating Principles 3.3 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) 3.4 Environmental Compliance Certificate (ECC) 3.5 Benefits of EIA 3.6 EIA Review and Monitoring Procedures and Standards Electronic Waste  Learning Content I. Ecological Concepts II. Pollution Environments III. Environmental Management System  Midterms Unit I. Ecological Concepts 1.1 Introduction to Environmental Science and Engineering 1.1.1 Environmental Science 1.1.2 Environmental Engineering 1.1.3 Environmental Systems Overview 1.1.4 Environmental Engineering Process – Modeling 1.1.5 Example Activities of Environmental Engineers 1.1.6 Sustainability and Life Cycle Analysis 1.2 Ecology and Ecosystems 1.2.1 Ecology 1.2.2 Ecosystems 1.3 Biogeochemical Cycles 1.3.1 Carbon Cycle 1.3.2 Nitrogen Cycle 1.3.3 Phosphorus Cycle 1.3.4 Sulfur Cycle ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS  introduction Environmental Science Natural science deals with the study of nature and the physical world. It includes such diverse disciplines as biology, chemistry, geology, physics, and environmental science. Environmental science encompasses all the fields of natural science - biology, chemistry, and physics (and their subdisciplines of microbiology, organic chemistry, nuclear physics, etc.).  introduction Environmental Engineering Engineering involves the application of fundamental scientific principles to the development and implementation of technologies needed to satisfy human needs. Environmental engineering defines environmental science with an objective to satisfy human needs applies mathematics and science to utilize the properties of matter and sources of energy focuses on the broader issues of sustainable development, environmental equity, habitat loss, and biodiversity  introduction An environmental engineer ❑ is expected to have a greater understanding of the environmental impact of engineering activities than traditionally trained engineers that has the knowledge and experience to identify, design, and implement a control strategy or technology within an industry served by that discipline ❑ should exhibit a greater understanding of the availability and feasibility of control and waste minimization technologies than an environmental scientist ❑ is seen to hold a central position between the environmental scientist with a traditional focus on the ecosystem and the impacts of development and the industry engineer with a traditional focus within the fence line of such a development  introduction The defining activity of an environmental engineer is thus the application of engineering science to the analysis of environmental processes and effects and the design of control systems to minimize adverse effects on those processes.  introduction Figure 1. Relationship between an environmental engineer and other disciplines and constraints *Lifted from Reible, D.D. (2010)  introduction Environmental Systems Overview Systems approach is looking at all the interrelated parts and their effects on one another. A. Water Resource Management System B. Air Resource Management System C. Solid Waste Management System D. Multimedia Systems  introduction A. Water Resource Management System Water Supply Subsystem. The nature of the water source commonly determines the planning, design, and operation of the collection, purification, transmission, and distribution works. The two major sources used to supply community and industrial needs are ❑ Surface water sources - streams, lakes, and rivers ❑ Groundwater sources - pumped from wells  introduction Desalination plants operate in more than 120 countries in the world, including Saudi Arabia, Oman, United Arab Emirates, Spain, Cyprus, Malta, Gibraltar, Cape Verde, Portugal, Greece, Italy, India, China, Japan, and Australia. introduction  introduction The source in each case determines the type of collection works and the type of treatment works. The pipe network in the city is called the distribution system. The storage reservoir may be elevated, or it may be at ground level. Storage compensates for changes in demand and allows a smaller treatment plant to be built.  introduction Population and water consumption patterns are the prime factors that govern the quantity of water required and hence the source and the whole composition of the water resource system. One of the first steps in the selection of a suitable water supply source is determining the demand ❑ average daily water consumption ❑ peak rate of demand  introduction Average daily water consumption must be estimated for two reasons: ❑ to determine the ability of the water source to meet continuing demands over critical periods when surface flows are low or groundwater tables are at minimum elevations, and ❑ for purposes of estimating quantities of stored water that would satisfy demands during these critical periods. The peak demand rates must be estimated in order to determine plumbing and pipe sizing, pressure losses, and storage requirements necessary to supply sufficient water during periods of peak water demand.  introduction Many factors influence water use for a given system. Major Factors ❑ Climate ❑ Industrial activity ❑ Meterage ❑ System management ❑ Standard of living Minor Factors: ❑ Extent of sewers ❑ System pressure ❑ Water price ❑ Availability of private wells  introduction Wastewater Disposal Subsystem. Safe disposal of all human wastes is necessary to protect human health and to prevent the occurrence of certain nuisances. The source of wastewater may be either ❑ Industrial wastewater ❑ Domestic sewage ❑ Combined  introduction Industrial wastewater may be subject to some pretreatment on site if it has the potential to upset the municipal wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) Municipal wastewater treatment systems are referred to as publicly owned treatment works (POTWs).  introduction Sewers are classified into three categories: sanitary, storm, and combined. Sanitary sewers are designed to carry municipal wastewater from homes and commercial establishments. With proper pretreatment, industrial wastes may also be discharged into these sewers. Storm sewers are designed to handle excess rainwater and snow melt to prevent flooding of low areas. Whereas sanitary sewers convey wastewater to treatment facilities, storm sewers generally discharge into rivers and streams.  introduction Combined sewers are expected to accommodate both municipal wastewater and storm water. These systems were designed so that during dry periods the wastewater is carried to a treatment facility. During rainstorms, the excess water is discharged directly into a river, stream, or lake without treatment. Unfortunately, the storm water is mixed with untreated sewage. When gravity flow is not possible or when sewer trenches become uneconomically deep, the wastewater may be pumped.  introduction Sewage treatment is performed at the WWTP to stabilize the waste material, that is, to make it less putrescible (likely to decompose). The effluent from the WWTP may be ✔ discharged into an ocean, lake, or river ✔ discharged onto (or into) the ground ✔ be processed for reuse The by-product sludge from the WWTP also must be disposed of in an environmentally acceptable manner.  introduction Toxic green algae in Copco Reservoir, Northern California. introduction introduction Water resource management is the process of managing both the quantity and the quality of the water used for human benefit without destroying its availability and purity.  introduction B. Air Resource Management System Air resource differs from our water resource in two important aspects: ❑ Quantity. Whereas engineering structures are required to provide an adequate water supply, air is delivered free of charge in whatever quantity we desire. ❑ Quality. Unlike water, which can be treated before we use it, it is impractical to go about with a gas mask on to treat impure air. The balance of cost and benefit for obtaining a desired quality of air is termed air resource management.  introduction Cost-benefit analyses can be problematic for at least two reasons: 1. The question of what is desired air quality. The tolerable limit is something greater than zero, but tolerance varies from person to person. 2. The question of cost versus benefit. Although the cost of control can be reasonably determined by standard engineering and economic means, the cost of pollution is still far from being quantitatively assessed.  introduction Air resource management programs are instituted for a variety of reasons such as 1. air quality has deteriorated and there is a need for correction, and 2. the potential for a future problem is strong  introduction C. Solid Waste Management System In the past, solid waste was considered a resource, and we should examine its current potential as a resource. Generally, however, solid waste is considered a problem to be solved as cheaply as possible rather than a resource to be recovered.  introduction Figure 2. Simplified block diagram of a solid waste management system *Lifted from Masten, S.J. & Davis, M.L. (2020) introduction  Midterms Unit I. Ecological Concepts 1.1 Introduction to Environmental Science and Engineering 1.1.1 Environmental Science 1.1.2 Environmental Engineering 1.1.3 Environmental Systems Overview 1.1.4 Environmental Engineering Process – Modeling 1.1.5 Example Activities of Environmental Engineers 1.1.6 Sustainability and Life Cycle Analysis 1.2 Ecology and Ecosystems 1.2.1 Ecology 1.2.2 Ecosystems 1.3 Biogeochemical Cycles 1.3.1 Carbon Cycle 1.3.2 Nitrogen Cycle 1.3.3 Phosphorus Cycle 1.3.4 Sulfur Cycle  introduction D. Multimedia Systems Many environmental problems cross the air–water–soil boundary. An example is acid rain that results from the emission of sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere. These pollutants are washed out of the atmosphere, thus cleansing it, but in turn polluting water and changing the soil chemistry, which ultimately results in the death of fish and trees. introduction Likewise, disposal of solid waste by incineration results in air pollution, which in turn is controlled by scrubbing with water, resulting in a water pollution problem.  introduction Three lessons have come to us from our experience with multimedia problems. ❑ It is dangerous to develop models that are too simplistic. ❑ Environmental engineers and scientists must use a multimedia approach and work with a multidisciplinary team to solve environmental problems. ❑ The best solution to environmental pollution is waste minimization—if waste is not produced, it does not need to be treated or disposed of.  introduction Environmental Engineering Process – Modeling Modeling is used to ✔ demonstrate understanding of past system behavior ✔ project that understanding for the prediction of future behavior ✔ design appropriate control measures Note: A model can be conceptual and qualitative, but generally it is not possible to demonstrate understanding of a process and make appropriate decisions influencing that process if there is no quantitative measure.  introduction Models can be used to assess the impact of a particular action on the environment or to evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention. Note: A system is simply the entire domain affected by the environmental problem in question while a model is a description of the processes of importance (to the particular problem) within the system. A variety of models exist depending on the level of understanding of the system and the objectives of the specific modeling effort. These models can always be tested against the performance of the constructed systems.  introduction Models of processes and effects in the natural environment, however, are subject to large uncertainty due both to the ❑ inability to exactly model particular processes ❑ difficulty of identifying what processes are applicable to a particular situation The type of model to be developed and used must be matched with the information available.  introduction A. Basic Types of Environmental Models Figure 3. Types of models for environmental systems *Lifted from Reible, D.D. (2010)  introduction 1. Conceptual models ❑ Literally a mental picture of the processes of the system ❑ All that is possible when sufficient information about a system to enable quantitative descriptions is unavailable ❑ The first step in any successful modeling effort. The qualitative understanding required to form a conceptual model is required to produce a more sophisticated quantitative one.  introduction 2. Physical models ❑ Usually, a laboratory simulation of the processes and systems under investigation ❑ Can be used to explore the behavior of the system or to test mathematical models ❑ Especially useful for very complex systems in that the physical model can be used to explore specific important processes that cannot be isolated in the full system.  introduction 3. Mathematical models ❑ The most common modeling tool ❑ Range in sophistication from very simple algebraic models to lumped parameter models ❑ Provide a tool for systematic analyses of system behavior To illustrate the various levels of mathematical modeling tools of interest, it is useful to consider the need to predict environmental concentrations of a particular environmental contaminant.  introduction B. Process of Modeling A key ingredient for successful application of a model is appropriate selection of the system and the level of sophistication of the model to be employed. There is no clear guidance for these selections, but the level of sophistication of the model should be consistent with a. the nature and quality of the predictions desired of the model and b. the quality of the data available to test the model. introduction Example Activities of Environmental Engineers  introduction Example 1. Remediation of soil contaminated by gasoline leak Soil may become contaminated with gasoline as a result of a transportation accident. Often the first response is removal of some of the contaminated soil. Even after soil removal, however, it is possible that some portion of the spilled gasoline will remain. Gasoline can move rapidly through soils and any soil that contacts the gasoline will likely retain a residual equal to I0 to 20% of the soil volume. The major health concern is often the aromatic compounds benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene, and xylene (the BTEX fraction), which may compose 10 to 20% of the gasoline. These compounds are relatively mobile in soils and even very low concentrations can render drinking water unusable.  introduction The technology used to remediate the soil may be selected, designed, and operated by an environmental engineer. Because these compounds are relatively volatile, a popular means of remediating or cleaning near-surface soils not saturated with water is by applying a vacuum and forcing air through the soil. A vapor extraction system, any required above-ground treatment of the withdrawn air, and the in-ground (or in situ) transport processes might be modeled by the environmental engineer to define the design and estimate its effectiveness.  introduction Example 2. Site assessment after plant decommissioning An industrial facility removed from service is often a potential problem because of spills or leaks of environmental pollutants during the plant operation. This is especially true for older facilities where stewardship of the environment improved over time. Practices considered quite appropriate even 5 to I 0 years ago may now be considered environmentally unsound. As a result, an industrial facility is likely to require site assessment including on-site sampling after decommissioning. The range of subsequent uses available to the facility will depend on the degree of contamination and the ease of returning the site to more pristine conditions. An environmental engineer may be involved in both the assessment of the site and the design and operation of any subsequent remediation process.  introduction Example 3. Preparation of an environmental impact assessment Any planned development whether commercial or industrial, is increasingly being asked to assess the environmental impact of the facility during construction and upon completion. If we consider a golf course development, an environmental engineer may not easily address some issues without appropriate experience or without the assistance of specialist in the specific discipline. The size of the development, however, may be such that independent expertise in each of the important areas may not be economically justified.  Activity 1 System Modeling Directions: 1. Identify an environmental problem. Research on an existing and specific environmental problem related on or which can be addressed through your field of specialization. The said problem has no solution yet or there may be solution(s) but considered insufficient. Discuss the problem on the point of view of one of the four presented systems management. 2. Define the system to be studied and needs to be modeled. Discuss the scope and delimitations. 3. Develop a physical model of the system with the integration of your solution. 4. Discuss the possible outcomes of your solution. Activity 1 Activity 1  introduction Sustainability and Life Cycle Analysis “Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (WCED, 1987). An overriding issue for the continuation of our modern living style and for the development of a similar living style for those in developing countries is the question of sustainability.  introduction How do we maintain our ecosystem in the light of major depletion of our natural resources? a. Pollution prevention by the minimization of waste production; b. Life cycle analysis of our production techniques to include built-in features for extraction and reuse of materials; c. Selection of materials and methods that have a long life; and d. Selection of manufacturing methods and equipment that minimize energy and water consumption.  introduction A. Three Pillar of Sustainability The society, the economy, and the environment are recognized to be the pillars of sustainability that should be considered to achieve mutual benefits. We must create and maintain a prosperous society with high quality of life without the negative impacts that have historically harmed our environment and communities in the name of development. And all of this must be performed while maintaining a sufficient stock of natural resources for current and future generations to maintain an increasing population with an improving quality of life.  introduction B. Life Cycle Thinking Life cycle thinking supports recognizing and understanding how both consuming products and engaging in activities impact the environment from a holistic perspective. Life cycle considerations take into account the environmental performance of a product, process, or system from acquisition of raw materials to refining those materials, manufacturing, use, and end-of-life management such as recycling, remanufacturing, and reuse.  introduction Figure 4. Common life cycle stages. Common life cycle for (a) manufactured product and (b) engineered infrastructure. *Lifted from Mihelcic, J.R. & Zimmerman, J.B. (2014)  introduction There is a need to consider the entire life cycle, because different environmental impacts can occur during different stages. Life cycle thinking will minimize the possibility of shifting impacts from one life cycle stage to another by considering the entire system. One can begin to understand and evaluate the potential trade-offs across many environmental and human health endpoints. These trade-offs can be quantified through a tool known as life cycle assessment (LCA).  introduction Figure 5. Components of the life cyle assessment *Lifted from Mihelcic, J.R. & Zimmerman, J.B. (2014)  introduction Life Cycle Assessment can ❑ identify processes, ingredients, and systems that are major contributors to environmental impacts ❑ compare different options within a particular process with the objective of minimizing environmental impacts ❑ compare two different product or processes that provide the same service.  introduction C. Life Cycle Analysis Framework 1. Define the goal and scope. It can be accomplished by answering questions such as: ❑ What is the purpose of the LCA? ❑ Why is the assessment being conducted? ❑ How will the results be used, and by whom? ❑ What materials, processes, or products are to be considered? ❑ Do specific issues need to be addresses? ❑ How broadly will alternative options be defined? What issues of concerns will the study address?  introduction Define the function and functional unit. The functional unit serves as the basis of the LCA, the system boundaries, and the data requirements and assumptions. Example: You are interested in determining the energy use and associated carbon emissions from reclaiming or desalinating water. Function: To reclaim treated wastewater or desalinate ocean water. Functional unit: m3 of reclaimed wastewater or m3 of desalinated water.  introduction 2. Develop a flow diagram for the processes being evaluated and conduct an inventory analysis. This involve describing all of the inputs and outputs (including material, energy, and water) in a product’s life cycle. It is also necessary to include the inputs and outputs during the product’s use. Note: If the analysis strictly focuses on materials and does not consider energy or other inputs/outputs, it is referred to as a subset of LCA and materials flow analysis.  introduction Materials flow analysis (MFA) measures the material flows into system, the stocks and flows within it, the outputs from the system. In this case, measurements are based on mass (or volume) loadings instead of concentrations. Urban materials flow analysis or urban metabolism study is a method to quantify the flow of materials that enter an urban area (e.g. water, food, and fuel) and the flow of materials that exit in an urban area (e.g. manufactured goods, pollutants, wastes). The purpose of an inventory analysis is to quantify inputs (e.g. materials, energy) and outputs (e.g. products, by-products, wastes).  introduction 3. Conduct impact assessment. Involves identifying all the environmental impacts associated with the inputs and outputs detailed in the inventory analysis. The environmental impacts from across the life cycle are grouped together in broad topics. This step often involves some assumptions about what human health and environmental impact will result from a given emission.  introduction 4. Weighting environmental impact categories. This yields a single score of the overall environmental performance of the product process, or system being analyzed. This is often a societal consideration that can vary between cultures. This also means that for an identical life cycle inventory, the resulting decision from the impact assessment may vary from country to country or organization to organization.  introduction D. Engineering for Sustainability The implementation of all of engineering achievements can lead to benefits as well as problems in terms of the environment, economy, and society. The adverse impacts of traditional engineering design, often implemented without a sustainability perspective, can be found all around us such as ✔ water use inefficiencies ✔ depletion of finite material and energy resources ✔ degradation of natural systems  introduction E. Frameworks for Sustainable Design To support the design of sustainable solutions, the Principles of Green Engineering were developed to provide framework for thinking in terms of sustainable design criteria, that if followed, can lead to useful advances for a wide range of engineering problems.  introduction Green chemistry is a field devoted to the design if chemical products and processes that reduce or eliminate the use and generation of hazardous materials. It focuses on addressing hazard through molecular design and the processes used to synthesize those molecules. The fields of green chemistry and engineering also use the concepts, fundamentals, and processes of nature to inspire design through biomimicry. It is a design discipline that studies nature’s best ideas and then imitates these designs and processes to solve human problems.  introduction F. Measuring Sustainability A sustainability indicator measures the process toward achieving a goal of sustainability. It should be a collection of indicators that represent multidimensional nature of sustainability considering environmental, social, and economic factors. Sustainability should not be viewed as a design constraint. It should be utilized as an opportunity to leapfrog existing ideas or design and drive innovative solutions that consider systematic benefits and impact over the lifetime of the design.  introduction For a given investment (time, energy, resources, capital), potential benefits can be realized such as ✔ increased market share ✔ reduced environmental impact ✔ minimized harm to human health ✔ improved quality of life.  Activity 2 Life Cycle Assessment Directions: 1. Identify an equipment, gadget, device, tool, or any infrastructure related to your field of specialization and conduct a comprehensive Life Cycle Assessment. 2. Take into account its environmental performance from acquisition of raw materials to refining those materials, manufacturing, use, and end-of-life management such as recycling, remanufacturing, and reuse. 3. Include Framework of the LCA (showing its components). 4. You may add discussions showing the benefits of your LCA on the three pillars of sustainability. ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS  Midterms Unit I. Ecological Concepts 1.1 Introduction to Environmental Science and Engineering 1.1.1 Environmental Science 1.1.2 Environmental Engineering 1.1.3 Environmental Systems Overview 1.1.4 Environmental Engineering Process – Modeling 1.1.5 Example Activities of Environmental Engineers 1.1.6 Sustainability and Life Cycle Analysis 1.2 Ecology and Ecosystems 1.2.1 Ecology 1.2.2 Ecosystems 1.3 Biogeochemical Cycles 1.3.1 Carbon Cycle 1.3.2 Nitrogen Cycle 1.3.3 Phosphorus Cycle 1.3.4 Sulfur Cycle ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS  ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS To study how organisms interact with each other and with their physical environments, several hierarchical levels of the organization have been recognized. Ecological patterns and processes vary as a function of the level of organization at which they operate. Four fundamental levels of the organization: ❑ individual organism ❑ population ❑ community ❑ ecosystem  ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS Organismal ecology gives focus on the individual organisms’ behavior, physiology, morphology, etc. in response and in relation to the environment.  ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS The population ecology deals with population growth and how and why a population changes over time. Populations of different species in an area interact with each other.  ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS Ecological communities are made up of interacting populations of different species within some defined geographical area. Communities occur on a wide variety of scales from small pond communities to huge tropical rainforests. At the largest scales, these communities are known as ‘biomes’. A biome is a distinct ecological community of plants and animals living together in a particular climate characterized by distinctive vegetation distributed over a wide geographical area. ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS  ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS Biosphere (also known as the ecosphere) highest level of organization/ ultimate ecosystem represents all ecosystems present on the Earth  ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS Ecosystems An ecosystem (or ecological system) is the interacting system made up of all the living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components in a physically defined space. Ecosystems are complex, open, hierarchically organized, self-organizing and self-regulated systems.  ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS Ecosystem ecology deals with the flow of energy and cycling of nutrients among organisms within a community and between organisms and the environment.  ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS Although ecosystems change naturally, human activity can speed up natural processes by several orders of magnitude (in terms of time). Human activities which can change ecosystems ❑ destruction of species ❑ loss of species’ habitat ❑ introduction of nonnative (exotic) species ❑ excessive hunting, some legal, others illegal ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS  ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS Topher White installs a cell phone listening device. The San Francisco-based engineer dreamt of a device that could listen for chainsaws and report their whereabouts to park authorities. Rainforest Connection  ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS Ecosystems would not be possible if not for the flow of energy into them. primary producers ❑ Photoautotrophic are sunlight-using organisms which obtain their carbon from inorganic sources such as carbon dioxide (CO2) or bicarbonate (HCO3-) ❑ Photoheterotrophs are sunlight-using organisms which uses preformed organic compounds produced by other organisms ❑ Chemotrophs obtain their energy from organic or inorganic carbon rather than from light Trophic is the term used to describe the level of nourishment.  ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS primary consumers ❑ Chemoheterotrophic are the herbivores that eat plant material ❑ Chemoautotrophs (decomposers) obtain energy from chemicals formed by other dead organisms or from excretions of organisms Secondary consumers ❑ Chemoheterotrophic are carnivores that eat the flesh of animals  ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS Figure 6. Ecological pyramid showing both mass and energy flow. *Lifted from Masten, S.J. & Davis, M.L. (2020)  ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS The rate of production of biomass glucose, cells, and other organic chemicals by the primary producers is referred to as net primary productivity (NPP). Aerobic respiration is simply the breakdown of organic chemicals, such as sugars and starches, by molecular oxygen to form gaseous carbon dioxide. ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS  ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS Bioaccumulation has serious implications for the movement of chemicals in the environment. These chemicals will tend to partition (move into) into the fat tissue of animals. Biomagnification is the process that results in the accumulation of a chemical in an organism at higher levels than are found in its own food which may be sufficiently high to cause death or adverse effects on behavior, reproduction, or disease resistance and thus endanger that species. ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS  Midterms Unit I. Ecological Concepts 1.1 Introduction to Environmental Science and Engineering 1.1.1 Environmental Science 1.1.2 Environmental Engineering 1.1.3 Environmental Systems Overview 1.1.4 Environmental Engineering Process – Modeling 1.1.5 Example Activities of Environmental Engineers 1.1.6 Sustainability and Life Cycle Analysis 1.2 Ecology and Ecosystems 1.2.1 Ecology 1.2.2 Ecosystems 1.3 Biogeochemical Cycles 1.3.1 Carbon Cycle 1.3.2 Nitrogen Cycle 1.3.3 Phosphorus Cycle 1.3.4 Sulfur Cycle Biogeochemical Cycles  BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES The basic elements of which all organisms are composed are carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, oxygen, and hydrogen. The first four of these elements are much more limited in mass and easier to trace than are oxygen and hydrogen. Because these elements are conserved, they can be recycled indefinitely (or cycled through the environment).  ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS Carbon Cycle Carbon is the building block of all organic substances and thus, of life itself. Although it was once thought that the largest reservoir of carbon is terrestrial (plants, geological formations, etc.), the ocean serves as the greatest reservoir of carbon. Synthesis of carbon Release of carbon dioxide Photosynthesis Combustion of fossil fuels Solubility pump Animal respiration Biological pump Fires Diffusion from the oceans Weathering of rocks Precipitation of carbonate minerals ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS Figure 6. Carbon cycle in the environment *Lifted from Mihelcic, J.R. & Zimmerman, J.B. (2014) ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS  ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS NITROGEN Cycle Nitrogen in lakes is usually in the form of nitrate (NO3-) and comes from external sources by way of inflowing streams or groundwater. When taken up by algae and other phytoplankton, the nitrogen is chemically reduced to amino compounds (NH2—R) and incorporated into organic compounds. When dead algae undergo decomposition, the organic nitrogen is released to the water as ammonia (NH3) and ammonium (NH4+). The ammonia released from organic compounds and other sources is oxidized to nitrate (NO3-) by a special group of nitrifying bacteria in a two-step process called nitrification. ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS Figure 7. Nitrogen cycle in the environment *Lifted from Mihelcic, J.R. & Zimmerman, J.B. (2014) ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS  ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS Human influences on the nitrogen cycle: ❑ manufacture and use of industrial fertilizers, ❑ fossil fuel combustion ❑ large-scale production of nitrogen-fixing crops The effects of nitrogen releases are ❑ acid rain and lake acidification ❑ corrosion of metals ❑ deterioration of building materials  ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS Phosphorus Cycle Phosphorus in unpolluted waters is imported through dust in precipitation or via the weathering of rock. Phosphorus is normally present in watersheds in extremely small amounts, usually existing dissolved as inorganic orthophosphate, suspended as organic colloids, adsorbed onto particulate organic and inorganic sediment, or contained in organic water.  ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS Human activities have led to a release of phosphorus from ❑ disposal of municipal sewage ❑ concentrated livestock operations The application of phosphorus fertilizers has also resulted in perturbations in the phosphorus cycle, although these changes are thought to be more localized than the perturbations in the other cycles. Phosphorus releases can have a significant effect on lake and stream ecosystems. ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS  ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS Black phosphorus is a layered semiconductor and has great potential in optical and electronic applications. Remarkably, this layered material can be reduced to one single atomic layer in the vertical direction owing to the van der Waals structure, and is known as phosphorene, in which the physical properties can be tremendously different from its bulk counterpart. ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS  ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS SULFUR Cycle With the Industrial Revolution, our use of sulfur-containing compounds as fertilizers and the release of sulfur dioxide during the combustion of fossil fuels and in metal processing has increased significantly. Mining operations have also resulted in the release of large quantities of sulfur in acid mine drainage.  ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS Energy and environmental issues are becoming more and more severe and renewable energy storage technologies are vital to solve the problem. Rechargeable metal (Li, Na, Mg, Al)-sulfur batteries with low-cost and earth-abundant elemental sulfur as the cathode are attracting more and more interest for electrical energy storage in recent years.  ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEMS Drone use is soaring as the unmanned aerial vehicles become indispensable to industry, agriculture and other sectors, along with aiding disaster relief. (Photo by Wataru Ito)