The Philippines Recommends for Animal Health Care 2002 PDF

 OFFICE OF THE EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR To Our Valued Reader, This publication, The Philippines Recommends for Animal Health Care, provides livestock and poultry technicians and food animal raisers basic information on common veterinary practices for primary level care and maintenance of a...

 OFFICE OF THE EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR To Our Valued Reader, This publication, The Philippines Recommends for Animal Health Care, provides livestock and poultry technicians and food animal raisers basic information on common veterinary practices for primary level care and maintenance of animal health. Adoption of the recommended animal health practices coupled with proper management will enable backyard animal raisers to ensure that healthy animals will be raised in the farm and thereby increase the population of healthy, vigorous, and prolific ruminants (cattle, carabaos and goats), swine, and poultry in the countryside, thus, ensuring food security. A joint publication of PCARRD and the Animal Health Division, Pfizer, Inc., this publication outlines programs on hygiene and sanitation, regular vaccination, regular parasite control, and preventive medication for ruminants, swine and poultry. It is hoped that you will find this publication a useful reference material. Very truly yours, PATRICIO S. FAYLON Executive Director The Philippines Recommends for Animal Health Care Philippines Recommends Series No. 65-A PHILIPPINE COUNCIL FOR AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY AND NATURAL RESOURCES RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT Department of Science and Technology ANIMAL HEALTH DIVISION PFIZER, Inc. Los Baños, Laguna 2002 First Edition 1988 Second Edition 2002 (Revised) ISSN 0115-7833 ISBN 971-20-0492-9 Bibliographic Citation: The 2001 Animal Health Care Committee. The Philippines recommends for animal health care. Los Baños, Laguna: PCARRD/DOST-PFIZER, INC., 2002. 109p. - (Philippines Recommends Series No. 65-A). ii Foreword Animal diseases have been an important concern in the overall animal industry. They influence a number of global security issues – food security for the ever-increasing human population, access to international trade and economic growth in developing and underdeveloped countries. Because many animal disease agents are zoonotic (transmissible between humans and animals, causing infection in both species), their management and prevention are critical to improving public health. Animals that are healthy and more resistant to diseases are desired to produce safer and more wholesome meat, milk, and eggs for the farmer’s own consumption or for the general public. It is crucial therefore, that the health of food animals like cattle, carabaos, goats, pigs, and chickens should be a common concern for both backyard and commercial animal producers. This goal can be achieved in the rural setting by adoption of applicable preventive veterinary interventions and acceptable practices in commercial operations. In this context, this Philippines Recommends issue was evolved. Its main objective is to provide livestock and poultry technicians, technologists and progressive animal raisers a reference for basic information on common veterinary practices for primary level care and maintenance of animal health. The rationale behind these practices is discussed and examples of recommended procedures applicable at the farmer’s level are presented. The expectations of the publishers (PCARRD in collaboration with Pfizer, Inc.) will be realized if a sizable majority of backyard raisers will adopt the recommended iii practices and a good indicator will be an increase in the population of healthy, vigorous, and prolific livestock and poultry in the countryside. Comments, suggestions and criticisms on this publication are welcome, to improve future editions. PATRICIO S. FAYLON Executive Director PCARRD iv Message In the Philippines, majority of livestock and poultry are raised in the backyard by smallholder farmers living mostly in the countryside. Unfortunately, financial losses caused by diseases and parasitism accrue because smallholder farmers still adopt traditional animal management practices which do not promote good animal health status. We are optimistic that by providing farmers information on proper animal health care, losses due to diseases and parasitism can be reduced considerably if not totally eliminated, thus, making animal raising more beneficial to the farmers. The Animal Health Division of Pfizer, Inc., like other agencies and institutions, is glad to help the Filipino animal raisers in improving the productivity of livestock and poultry. We are certain that important information on proper animal health care contained in this volume of the Philippines Recommends for Animal Health Care can serve the farmers. This publication is prepared by a technical committee composed of experts from the College of Veterinary Medicine (CVM), and the Dairy Training and Research Institute (DTRI) of the University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB), College of Veterinary Science and Medicine (CVSM) of the Central Luzon State University (CLSU), and the Bureau of Animal Industry (BAI) of the Department of Agriculture (DA). This volume contains relevant information on proper animal hygiene and sanitation, vaccination, parasite control and preventive medication and procedures in handling emergency cases. This information is essential in providing good animal health status of livestock and poultry raised for different purposes such as meat, egg, and milk production and draft power. v  The Animal Health Division, Pfizer, Inc. expresses its thanks to the Animal Health Care Committee 2001 who prepared this publication. Through this publication, we also extend our sincere thanks and gratitude to those who patronize our products. We will do our best to continuously share with you new technologies in animal production that will be developed in the future. RONALD A. VERGEL DE DIOS Director Animal Health Division Pfizer, Inc. vi Acknowledgment The Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development (PCARRD) and Pfizer, Inc. gratefully acknowledge the cooperation extended by some agencies and institutions in the publication of the Philippines Recommends for Animal Health Care. Appreciation is due to the heads of the University of the Philippines Los Baños, Central Luzon State University and the Bureau of Animal Industry – Department of Agriculture for allowing their staff to serve as members of the Technical Committee for the revision of the Philippines Rcommends for Animal Health Care. Acknowledgment is also due to the staff of Livestock Research Division, PCARRD, for their continued and unrelenting support and assistance, Mr. Ronald A. Vergel de Dios of Animal Health Division, Pfizer, Inc. for his contribution to the printing of this volume and Dr. Norma V. Llemit, Dr. Tricia R. Javier, and staff of the Applied Communication Division, PCARRD for the overall coordination of the production of this publication. vii Contents Foreword iii Message v Acknowledgment vii The 2001 Animal Health Care Committee xiii Glossary of Terms xiv Introduction 1 Hygiene and Sanitation Program 4 Hygienic Measures to Prevent the Entry of Disease Agents 5 Hygienic Measures to Minimize the Occurrence of Diseases 6 Recommended Procedures in Disinfection 9 Chemical Compounds Used in Disinfection 9 Properties of an ideal disinfectant 9 Regular Vaccination Program 14 Technical Basis of Vaccination 14 Vaccine Efficacy 16 Features of an Excellent Vaccine 24 Guidelines for Vaccination/Use of Vaccines 24 Regular Parasite Control Program 26 Technical Basis of Parasite Control Program 27 Types of parasites and their effects on the host 27 Modes of parasite transmission 27 Common arthropods of ruminants 28 Common parasites of poultry 28 Common helminths of ruminants 29 Common helminths of swine 30 Parasite Control Program Methodologies 48 Environmental control 49 Management schemes 50 Regular deworming program 53 ix  General Guidelines for Effective Deworming Program 54 Herbal medicine 56 Recommended deworming schedules 57 Preventive Medication Program 61 Situations/Conditions which Need Preventive Medication Program 61 Guidelines in Formulating a Preventive Medication Regimen 62 Drugs Used in Preventive Medication Program 63 Antibiotics 63 Probiotics 64 Guides in Handling First Aid and/or Emergency Case 66 Basic Guidelines in Handling Emergency Cases 66 Recommended Emergency Procedure in Handling Specific Cases 67 Heat stroke 67 Acute insecticide poisoning 69 Bloat (Tympany) 69 Fractures (long bones of the legs) 76 Foot problems 77 Difficult parturition (Dystocia) 79 Dystocia in small ruminants 83 Retained placenta 86 Uterine prolapse 87 Vaginal prolapse 90 Diarrhea/Scouring 91 Acute pneumonia 92 References 94 Appendices A Department of Agriculture Administrative Order No. 12 Series of 1992 99 B Guide in Collection and Transport of Specimens for Laboratory Examination 103 C List of Regional Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory (RADDL) 107 D Capabilities of the Regional Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory (RADDL) 108 x List of Tables 1 Animal disease situation report, 2000 2 2 Examples of various types of chemical compounds used in disinfection 10 3 Classification of chemical compounds used in disinfection 12 4 Schedules for vaccination against common diseases of livestock and poultry 17 5 Injection types for cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, and pig 23 6 Common ectoparasites affecting livestock and poultry and the diseases associated with them 36 7 Common endoparasites affecting livestock and poultry and the diseases associated with them 40 8 Normal pulse rate, respiration rate, and body temperature of some domesticated animals 68 9 Some common plants poisonous to livestock in the Philippines 70 List of Figures 1 Suitable cage/pen for chicken 7 2 Suitable shed/pen for pigs 7 3 Recommended night shed or holding area for cattle and carabaos 7 4 Intramuscular injection for pigs 23 5 Subcutaneous injection for piglets 23 6 Tabanus sp. (breezefly) 28 7 Boophilus microplus (tropical cattle tick) 28 8 Damalinia limbata (biting louse) 28 9 Ornithonyssus bursa (tropical cattle tick) 28 10 Goniodes sp. (large body louse) 28 11 Ascaridia galli (large roundworms) 29 12 Raillietina sp. (tapeworm of poultry) 29 13 Moniezia sp. (tapeworm) 29 14 Toxocara vitulorum (common roundworm) 29 15 Amphistomes 29 16 Fasciola sp. (liver fluke) 29 17 Ascaris suis (large roundworm) 30 18 Stephanurus dentatus (kidney worm) 30 19 Trichuris suis (whipworm) 30 xi 20 Life cycle of Trichostrongyles 31 21 Life cycle of Toxocara vitulorum in cattle and carabao 31 22 Life cycle of Ascaris suis 32 23 Life cycle of coccidia (Eimeria tenella) in chicken 33 24 Life cycle of common liver fluke 34 25 Division of paddocks for rapid rotational grazing system 51 26 Trocar and cannula used to puncture the left paralumbar fossa. Only the cannula remains after trocar is withdrawn to expel gas 75 27 Palmar aspect of the equine hoof 78 28 Palmar aspect of the bovine hoof 78 29 Lateral aspect of the bovine hoof 78 30 Abnormality of posture: One leg flexed at knee 81 31 Correction of simple leg flexed (leg back) presentation 81 32 Full leg flexion from the shoulder, showing an attempt to draw it forward to the simple knee flexion 81 33 Correction of a “head back” position 82 34 Backwards presentation showing normal and abnormal positions of the umbilical cord 82 35 Backwards presentation 82 36. Breech presentation 83 37a Manual extraction of fetus with front legs back 84 37b Manual extraction of fetus with legs present, but head twisted 85 37c Manual extraction of fetus with breech presentation 85 38a Prolapse of the uterus 88 38b Prolapsed uterus placed in a bucket containing cold sugar solution 88 38c The same cow after the prolapsed uterus was returned into the pelvic cavity and the vulva sutured 89 39a Prolapse of the vagina and the cervix 90 39b A vaginal prolapse 91 xii  The 2001 Animal Health Care Committee CHAIRMAN Dr. Jose Q. Molina Director Bureau of Animal Industry (BAI) Visayas Avenue, Diliman, Quezon City MEMBERS Dr. Ronello B. Abila Dr. Andrew M. Bernardo Officer-in-Charge Assistant Professor Animal Health Division College of Veterinary Medicine BAI, Visayas Avenue University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City Los Baños (UPLB) College, Laguna Dr. Antonio A. Rayos Dr. Edwin C. Villar Research Associate Professor Director Dairy Training and Research Livestock Research Division (LRD) Institute PCARRD, Los Baños, Laguna UPLB, College, Laguna Dr. Virginia M. Venturina Dr. Jerosalem A. Arguzon Associate Professor Science Research Specialist College of Veterinary LRD, PCARRD Science and Medicine Los Baños, Laguna Central Luzon State University Muñoz, Nueva Ecija Ricardo R. Argana Volume Editor Science Research Specialist II Applied Communication Division PCARRD, Los Baños, Laguna xiii Glossary of Terms Agglutination – a reaction in which particles (such as red blood cells, bacteria, virus particles, or rickettsiae) suspended in liquid collect into clumps or flocules with the loss of motility in the case of flagellated or ciliated organisms. This occurs when the suspension is treated with certain substances that combine with the surface of the particles. Anaphylactic shock – an exaggerated reaction to foreign protein which sometimes follows parenteral injections, stings, and the like which is frequently encountered on administration of a second dose of a vaccine. Anaesthetic – anything (e.g., drugs, gas, and the like) that makes a part of or the entire individual to lose partially or totally its sensibility. Anthelmintic – a substance used to expel or destroy parasitic worms especially of the intestine. Anthelmintic resistance – a state when there is greater frequency of individuals within a population able to tolerate doses of a compound than in a normal population of the same species. Antibacterial action – similar to bactericidal action. The process of killing or destroying bacteria, as opposed to bacteriostatic action which is inhibiting the growth of microorganisms. Antibiotic – a substance produced by molds which inhibits growth or kills bacteria. Antibody – any of various globulins normally present or produced in response to infection or administration of suitable antigens or haptens. This combines specifically with antigens (as bacteria, toxins, or foreign red blood cells) and neutralizes toxins; agglutinate bacteria or cells; and precipitates soluble antigens. Antiparasitic compounds – are agents that are capable of expelling and/or killing either internal or external parasites or both. xiv Antiseptic – a substance that prevents or arrests the growth or action of microorganisms either by inhibiting their activity or by destroying them. Antitoxin – an antibody formed in the body as a result of the introduction of a toxin that stimulates its production. This is produced for medical purposes by ingestion of animals with gradually increased doses of a toxin or toxoid. The resulting serum is used to counteract the same toxin in other animals. Attenuated vaccine – is a vaccine preparation wherein the virulence of its microorganism contents has been reduced, e.g., by serial passage in animals other than the normal host species. Avirulent – incapable of causing disease. Bacterin – suspension of killed or attenuated bacteria when injected into a living body stimulates the development of immunity. Bivalent vaccine – an immunizing agent consisting of two strains of the same microorganism. Booster dose – is the subsequent administration of a vaccine at proper intervals after the first injection to increase and/or make the protection stronger. Broad spectrum antibiotic – an antibiotic that has a wide range of activity against different types of microorganisms. Broad spectrum dewormer – a dewormer that has the capability of destroying or killing different types of parasites. Carcinogenic – producing or tending to produce cancer. Charred – burned to ashes. Chemoprophylaxis – the prevention of infectious disease by use of chemical agents. Chemotherapeutic compounds – are chemical substances that are used for the treatment of infectious disease. Chemotherapy – the treatment of infectious disease by use of chemical agents. Cold compress – procedure of applying ice packs to a particular bleeding/swollen area for a definite period of time with a certain pressure on it. xv Colostrum – the milk produced during the first three to five days after parturition. It contains high protein, vitamins, minerals and antibodies that supply essential immune bodies to the newly born animals. Complete fixation – an approach usually done in cases of fracture to temporarily immobilize particular parts of the body to enable complete approximation of the fractured edges. Cut-and-carry – a method of feeding where the forage is cut and given fresh to the confined animals. Cytotoxic – a substance having a lethal effect on cells. Decoction – a liquid preparation made by boiling a medicinal plant with water. Dehydrated – a state of deficiency in total body fluid volume. Diluent – an inert fluid used for reconstituting vaccines or antibiotic powder preparations. Disease agent – any physical, chemical, electromagnetic, biological agent capable of causing disease. Disinfection – a substance which inhibits or destroys microorganisms and their spores. Electrolytes – a substance (an acid, base or salt) which when dissolved in a suitable solvent (as water) or when fused becomes an ionic conductor. Frothy bloat – a condition occurring in ruminants which is characterized by accumulation of gas interspersed with fluid causing foaming. Gag – something thrust into the mouth to keep it open; a medical device for keeping the mouth open. Genetic potential – desired traits that are possessed by an individual which is acquired from one or both parents. Hemagglutination – aggregation of clumping of red blood cells. Hemolytic enzymes – substances that are capable of destroying the red blood corpuscles with the concomitant release of hemoglobin. Hiplock – enlargement between the hips of the mother and that of the offspring that would lead to difficult birth. Hygiene – conditions or practices conducive to health. xvi Hypersensitivity – abnormal response to an antigen, drug, or other agents, e.g., allergy. Immunoresponsive cells – are cells of the blood and the reticuloendothelial system capable of responding to antigenic stimuli. Inactivated vaccine – vaccine wherein the disease inducing ability of its microorganism content has been destroyed. Inflammatory cells – are cells of the body (white blood cells and RES) that migrate to sites of tissue injury to destroy the injurious agent and to help in the healing process. Intermediate host – is an organism (mammals or arthropods, insects, and the like) which serves as biological carrier of disease inducing agents. Intermediate host – organism that harbors the asexual or larval stages of the parasite. Intravenous administration – the introduction of solutions/drugs into the circulation via the veins. Jugular furrows – are the grooves along the ventral region of the neck which correspond to the location of the jugular veins. Live vaccine – a vaccine consisting of live organisms which multiply in the body cells and tissues and induce the body to produce antibodies. Macrophage – a mononuclear white blood cells or histiocytes which phagocytize (eat up) particular matter. Mixed vaccine – a vaccine consisting of two or more different organisms. Modified vaccine – a vaccine wherein the live organism content of an antigen that has capability to produce disease has been altered. Monovalent vaccine – an agent consisting of a single strain of an organism. Necrotic tissues – dead tissues. Oxytocin – a substance that stimulates the contraction of uterine muscles and the ejection of milk. Paralumbar fossa – hunger hollow, demarcated on both flanks by the last rib anteriorly, the lumbar transverse processes dorsally and the point of the hip posteriorly, making an inverted imaginary triangle. xvii Parasite burden – the degree/intensity of parasitism based on the total parasitic load. Paratenic host – organism that harbors the infective stage of a parasite but no further development takes place and transmits the infection to the susceptible host. Parenteral administration – the administration of drugs or compounds in routes other than the oral route, e.g., I.M. and I.V. Peracute – sudden occurrence. Permeability – the ability to penetrate cell membranes. Poultice – a soft mass (pounded leaves, clay) usually heated and spread on cloth for application to sores, inflamed areas, or other lesions to supply moist, warmth, relieve pain, or act as counter-irritant or antiseptic. Reconstitution – the process of adding diluent to dehydrated preparations, e.g., freeze dried vaccines. Rehydration – the process of restoring body fluids lost in dehydration. Rumenotomy – incision into the rumen. Sedation – inducing a relaxed easy state by use of sedatives. Sporulated oocyst – the infective stage of coccidian parasites which has undergone division by spore formation. Subcutaneous injection – the administration of drugs/ compounds just beneath the skin. Transmissible disease – a disease that spreads from one host to another (same or different species). Trivalent vaccine – a vaccine containing a mixture of three different strains/biotypes of the same organism. Tympany – the excessive accumulation of gas in the rumen. Vaccinates – vaccinated animals. Vaccination – the process of administering vaccine. Vaccine – a preparation of live/dead/inactivated/modified/ attenuated organisms designed to induce immunity to a particular disease. Vector – an agent (usually arthropods) capable of transmitting a pathogen from one organism to another either mechanically as carrier or biologically by playing a specific role in the life cycle of the pathogen. Virulent – capable of causing disease. xviii Introduction Livestock diseases is a problem of considerable importance to farmers. Good livestock husbandry equates with proper animal care to obtain optimum production of their products. As production methods become more intensive, particularly in commercial farms, the health status of animals becomes increasingly a primary determinant of productivity in livestock farms. In tropical countries like the Philippines, livestock diseases are a major impediment to livestock production and economic development. Tropical climate is extremely conducive to the growth and propagation of pathogens, and consequently the environment is rife with diseases and their vectors. Table 1 lists the Animal Disease Situation of 2000. Among the major diseases of economic importance in the country are Foot and Mouth Disease, Hemorrhagic Septicemia, Hog Cholera, and Newcastle Disease. A livestock disease with primary public health importance is Anthrax, which is primarily confined in the mountainous areas of northern Luzon. Occurrence of diseases is not always caused by mere presence of the disease agent. For example, Pasteurella multocida is a natural inhabitant of the respiratory system of large ruminants, but its mere presence will not cause Pasteurellosis. Under certain stressful condition, when the natural resistance of the animal declines, the bacteria will overcome the natural defenses of the respiratory tract and therefore, multiply to cause Pasteurellosis. On the other hand, inspite of the P. multocida becoming pathogenic, if the animal is immunized due to previous vaccination, hemorrhagic septicemia will not occur. The relationship between the disease agent, the susceptible host and the environment must be fully understood to prevent occurrence of diseases. The best method of avoiding the devastating effects of a particular PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE 1  Table 1. Animal disease situation report, 2000. 2 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS Disease Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Total Disease C D C D C D C D C D C D C D C D C D C D C D C D C D A. coccidiosis 19946 206 4133 174 53 12 87 7 1181 33 35 4 4315 165 2100 0 15 5 0 0 16050 0 300 0 48215 606 A. malaria 4012 0 6 0 14 0 5150 0 3500 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 23000 0 0 0 35683 0 Anthrax 0 0 9 9 2 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 13 13 Blackleg 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 Coryza 15421 110 2224 780 675 68 3406 307 4219 89 231 50 1434 179 7 0 39 5 0 0 0 0 10025 0 37681 1588 CRD 17461 314 4334 1211 1573 150 2007 45 1473 51 748 137 2665 474 558 1 0 0 0 0 20171 0 20400 0 71390 2383 E. fever 0 0 4 0 13 0 5 0 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 34 0 FMD 602 62 975 96 384 69 50 0 551 81 348 26 376 98 239 32 122 12 154 13 96 43 348 61 4245 593 F. Cholera 565 330 1373 707 173 31 8 11 285 3 35 1 1157 577 0 0 1 0 0 0 100 0 200 0 3897 1660 F. pox 25825 747 5202 5030 313 178 374 27 314 116 593 237 10271 7016 0 0 59 5 20 6 200 0 0 0 43171 13362 FOR HC 188 111 256 48 97 89 209 156 277 206 556 45 306 93 67 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 1966 748 Hemosept 427 34 500 91 217 28 215 15 177 5 70 1 146 11 0 0 8 2 0 0 16 0 8 0 1784 187 Liverfluke 1520 38 1954 29 2498 13 781 17 401 4 860 2 2250 0 68 1 17 0 0 0 97 0 40 0 10486 104 ANIMAL HEALTH CARE NCD 35167 29026 10751 5379 113 58 260 128 156 34 0 0 14173 5147 0 0 22 8 0 0 50 0 12 10 60704 39790 Orf 46 4 23 1 42 0 24 5 12 0 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 157 10 S. erysipelas 170 20 66 11 51 2 15 1 16 2 5 0 35 2 0 0 1 0 7 0 14 0 2 0 382 38 S. Flu 418 30 702 55 1040 76 728 112 395 171 741 71 51 2 9 0 43 9 0 0 62 0 4 0 4193 526 S. Plague 154 10 141 6 44 2 110 4 38 17 24 11 252 25 0 0 0 0 0 0 43 0 0 0 806 75 Surra 73 0 22 0 41 2 34 9 24 0 8 2 20 6 8 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 20 0 259 19 Orf 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 Grand Total 121995 31042 32675 13627 7343 780 13466 847 13031 812 4259 587 37452 13796 3056 34 337 46 181 19 59918 43 31364 71 325077 61704 Source: BAI-DA. c - case; d - death disease is still adopting measures for its eradication, similar to the measures undertaken in eradicating rinderpest from the country in the 50s. But for diseases that have not been eradicated yet, we need to implement measures to prevent its occurrence or at least reduce its devastating effects. Among the measures needed to be undertaken to prevent diseases is to keep susceptible animals in a safe place to prevent contact with infectious agents. Keeping farms away from crowded areas is one way to reduce the risk of contamination. Proper sanitation and disinfection of all vehicles and possible mechanical carriers will also reduce disease transmission. Since livestock are predominantly exposed to possible disease-causing agents and their vectors, herd immunization via vaccination must be practiced regularly to prevent occurrence of diseases. Other measures include controlling the population of vectors and intermediate hosts, through the use of chemicals, drugs, and biologicals in the disinfection of surroundings and handling of clinical cases. This publication was made to assist farmers on the proper management of animal health. The integration of animal health care with proper management practices, hopefully, will reduce the incidence of animal health problems that adversely affect the productivity and efficiency of the country’s livestock and poultry stocks. PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE 3 Hygiene and Sanitation Program One of the veterinary medical interventions designed to promote animal health is hygiene and sanitation program. If implemented properly, it will prevent or at least minimize contact between disease agents and the animal and will result to disease-free or healthy animals. Under the traditional village, smallholder or backyard system of raising animals, farmers are not commonly responsive to recommended sanitation and hygiene programs. This is due to the nature of the husbandry system where the livestock raised are not confined in suitable housing. For example, chickens in the barangays are allowed to roam around during the day scavenging for food in the neighbor’s backyard or in open fields. They return home in the evening to roost under the farmer’s fruit trees, or in a makeshift sheltered area in the backyard, or under the farmer’s house. Chickens are confined only when fattened. They are placed in basket cages for fattening in time for a special family occasion, or for the mother hens to sit on their eggs to hatch. The farmer’s carabaos, cattle, goats and pigs on the other hand are more confined than his chickens. They are being tethered nearly all the time whether at “home” or in the grazing areas. The animal's “home”, however is most likely a place under a mango or tamarind tree. Some animals are luckier because they are tethered in a makeshift shelter covered with thatched cogon or coconut leaves. These conditions require extra effort from the farmer or his family to keep the area clean. But more and more chickens and livestock raised in the backyard are being confined. In chickens, this is seen in broilers being raised in housing with elevated slatted floors. Pigs too are being raised in houses with concrete floors and dairy carabaos and cows are confined in sheds during the night. Thus, some basic sanitary and hygienic 4 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE measures are practiced in the rural villages to a certain degree. These measures should be promoted as routine procedures aimed at minimizing the contact of the animals with agents of infectious diseases or the carriers/sources of these agents. Hygienic Measures to Prevent the Entry of Disease Agents The entry of disease agents to disease-free or healthy animals should be prevented. This can be done by practicing biosecurity measures like quarantine and isolation of diseased animals. Foremost in the list of quarantine measures is the strict selection of animals free from disease before they are added to the existing animals. Healthy animals will not show the usual symptoms of disease like fever, inappetence, coughing, sneezing, diarrhea, constipation, rapid breathing or thumping, recumbency, poor condition, rough hair coat, runting, abortion, infertility, etc. The provision of confinement housing with perimeter fence will prevent possible contact with sick animals in the neighborhood especially if this is located away from other livestock and people. However, in backyard farms where the distance to the next farm is not considerable, entry of infection by air, dust, birds, rodents, pets, and objects may not be prevented. People can also introduce infection to healthy animals. Microbes can attach themselves to various parts of the body including the nostrils and be carried to the animals. This is why hygienic procedures such as shower-in/shower-out, change of clothes and foot wear, foot bath and hand wash are adopted to prevent the entry of infection. Equipment and supplies, which are needed in the farm, are sterilized by using fumigation usually with formaldehyde-potassium permanganate or disinfectant spray. PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE 5  Hygienic Measures to Minimize the Occurrence of Disease Problems In cases where a disease is already present, hygienic measures can minimize the occurrence of disease by reducing the number of animals getting sick (morbidity rate) and the number of animals dying from the disease (mortality rate). z Whenever possible, confine animals in suitable housing. 1. Confine poultry and pigs raised in the backyard. Raise chickens in cages (Fig. 1) and pigs in pens with concrete floor (Fig. 2) for sanitary and hygienic reasons. Ample feeding, drinking, and resting spaces should be provided. 2. Clean the house and disinfect between batches. This practice is also known as All-in/All-out method. Remove immediately the manure after vacating the house. Brush clean the floors, walls, waterers, and feeders with soap and water. Soak them in soapsuds for half an hour. Brush clean to remove all dirt and organic matter and then rinse them thoroughly with water. If possible, dry the waterers and feeders in the sun to take advantage of its disinfecting property. Disinfect also the house and premises. Rest and vacate the house from at least two days to two weeks before putting in the next batch of animals. 3. Well-drained holding area. As much as possible, the night shed or holding area (Fig. 3) for cattle and carabaos should be in an elevated, well-drained area. This minimizes soggy condition of the soil, thus, helps prevent foot rot. 6 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE Fig. 1. Suitable cage/pen for chicken. Fig. 2. Suitable shed/pen for pigs. Fig. 3. Recommended night shed or holding area for cattle and carabaos. PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE 7 z Regular removal and proper disposal of manure, litters and garbage. Clean the animal’s area and the immediate vicinity regularly. This prevents the build up of maggots and fly population, which are carriers of infectious disease. Flies and maggots also cause direct injury to the animal. Removal of manure regularly also prevents soggy or wet condition of the soil which is conducive to foot rot in cattle and carabaos. The best and most practical method to dispose organic wastes and garbage is composting. z Proper disposal of dead animals. Animals that died of an infectious disease are potent sources of disease agents. Dispose them properly to prevent spreading the disease. Bury the animal together with the contaminated litters and manure at least 6 ft under the ground with 1 m of soil and rocks as top cover. If available, pour strong creoline solution over the cadaver and on the burial area. Use lime if creoline solution is not available. If possible, put stones or heavy objects on the burial site to prevent the dogs from digging it. In specific situations where burning of the cadaver becomes necessary, completely char it to ashes. z Check the drinking water supply. Water should be potable and not contaminated with pathogenic microorganisms and infective materials like manure and vectors of infection. Cattle, carabaos, goats, and sheep should drink clean water from sanitary wells and whenever necessary from rivers and streams with clean, flowing water and not from ponds and pools of stationary water. z Quarantine of premises during outbreaks of diseases. Confine sick animals to avoid contact with healthy animals. This minimizes the possibility of spreading the disease. z Regular grooming of animals. Cattle, carabaos, goat, and sheep should be groomed regularly to remove dirt and 8 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE  unnecessary hairs, and to stimulate the skin's oil glands. Grooming also provides an opportunity for the farmer to examine more closely the condition of his animal, e.g., examination of lice and tick infestation. Examine also the teeth to check for any abnormalities. Bad condition of the teeth and gums can cause poor appetite. Recommended Procedures in Disinfection 1. Remove all loose dirt, litter, and other organic materials from the area to be disinfected. Use hot water containing detergent or soap. Scrub the dirt, if practical. High pressured water is recommended in areas where scrubbing is not possible. 2. Use the recommended disinfectant as prescribed by the manufacturers. Use it warm, if possible. 3. Apply the disinfectant thoroughly. Special attention should be given to the feeding troughs, drainage, and waste containers. 4. Allow the disinfectant time to act. All residues of the disinfectant should be rinsed thoroughly before repopulating the area/pen. 5. Heat is the most reliable disinfectant. Where practical, all contaminated materials should be burned. Using boiling water is also effective. Chemical Compounds Used in Disinfection Properties of an Ideal Disinfectant An ideal disinfectant must: z have a broad antimicrobial activity; z have high stability and permeability; z have low toxicity to the animal; z not irritate the skin and free from corrosive property and offensive odor; PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE 9  z not cause pollution and disturb the ecology of the environment; z not interfere with normal healing process, and must act in the presence of pus and necrotic tissues; and z be readily available at reasonable cost. Chemical compounds used in disinfection are given in Tables 2 and 3. Table 2. Examples of various types of chemical compounds used in disinfection. Acids(Inorganic Coal-tar Derivatives and Organic) phenol (carbolic acid) hydrochloric acid cresol nitric acid phenol bismuth sulfuric acid phenol diiodide phosphoric acid para-nitrophenol acetic acid carbolic acid Halogens benzoic acid bromide boric acid chlorine fluorine Alcohols iodine methyl alcohol ethyl alcohol Oxidizing Agents propyl alcohol chlorine isopropyl alcohol oxygen benzyl alcohol ozone amyl alcohol perchloric acid sodium bromate Aldehydes sodium permanganate acetic aldehyde sodium peroxide formaldehyde glyceric aldehyde Reducing Agents methoxy benzyl aldehyde carbon dioxide isovaleric aldehyde hydrogen carbon monoxide Alkalines ethylene oxide calcium hydroxide salicylic acid sodium hydroxide potassium hydroxide 10 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE Table 2. (Continued). trisodium phosphate Surface-active Agents sodium bisulfate anionics (true soaps, sodium nitrite synthetic soaps sodium sulfonate sulfonates) sodium borate cationics (quaternary sodium carbonate ammonium germicides) nonionics (alkylated aryl Aromatic oils polyether alcohol) camphor polyethylene, derivative peppermint of sorbitan mono-oleate pine cinnamon eucalyptus Source: PR for Animal Health Care, 1988. PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE 11  Table 3. Classification of chemical compounds used in disinfection. 12 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS Approximate Agent Concentration Used (%) Mode of Action Use Alcohols 50-70 denaturation of proteins; as skin disinfectants; to form interference with tinctures of antiseptics (used metabolism: lysis with acetone) (dissolving of organism) Cationic, surface-active 0.10-0.25 denaturation of proteins; as skin disinfectants and quaternary ammonium inactivation of cellular antiseptics; in mechanical compounds metabolites; dissolving removal of foreign matter from FOR of cell wall wounds; in sanitazing eating and drinking utensils, food ANIMAL HEALTH CARE processing equipment Bisphenols (2 phenols 2-5 inhibition of cell growth as surgical scrubs (used with linked together) soaps and detergents); as deodorants Chlorine gas and chloride 0.0000002-0.000002 liberation of cell constituents in chlorination of water supplies; compounds with as food/plant sanitizer; in available chlorine treating wounds and hospital equipment Iodine and iodized 2-16 precipitation of cell protein in ointment and serves as skin compounds antiseptics; in surgical instrument disinfection Aldehydes 1-5 general microorganism poison in disinfection of dwellings, ships, storage houses, utensils, clothing; as fungicide for plants, in hospital-instrument sterilization  Table 3. (Continued). Approximate Agent Concentration Used (%) Mode of Action Use Oligodynamic metals (silver, traces cell membrane destruction; as disinfectants, in ointments PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS copper, mercury) coagulation of cell materials and salves in cement (e.g., in shower rooms) Acids 0.1-5.0 precipitation of cell proteins; as skin antiseptics (salicylic destruction of cell wall benzoic acids); in food preservatives (benzoic acids); in destruction of bacteria and viruses (inorganic acids) Coal-tar derivatives 0.1-5.0 cytoplasmic poisons; disruption as skin antiseptics in dilute of cell wall; precipitation solutions; as floor and wall of proteins; inactivation of disinfectants, combined with enzymes soaps; as surgical instrument FOR sterilizers Salicylanilides and 0.1-5.0 catalyze oxidation of cell; as skin antiseptics in soaps ANIMAL HEALTH CARE 13 carbanilides (similar bind cell proteins; inhibit and cosmetics; in surgical to bisphenols; combine cell growth and bath soaps and laundry with salicyclic acid and detergents aniline Aromatic oils (especially 0.1-5.0 effect on cell constituents; as disinfectants with soaps for pine oil) mechanical effect inhibits washing floors and walls; to cell growth mask unpleasant odors; as a deodorant on inanimate surfaces. Source: PR for Animal Health Care, 1988. Regular Vaccination Program Vaccination involves exposing an animal to an antigen derived from an infectious agent so that an immune response is stimulated and the animal acquire resistance to that infectious agent before natural infection occurs. Several criteria must be considered to determine whether vaccination is either possible or desirable in controlling a specific disease. The first is the absolute identification of the causal agent. Second, it must be established that an immune response can actually protect against the disease in question. Thus, the decision to use vaccines for the control of any disease must be based not only on the severity of the problem, but also on the prospects for its control by other techniques such as removing or reducing the effects of risk factors. A regular vaccination program at least against economically significant diseases prevalent in a particular community is therefore recommended. This should be instituted in individual smallholder livestock production systems. The program is particularly important in viral diseases, where effective, safe, and affordable drugs for prevention and treatment are not yet available, unlike bacterial and parasitic diseases, where drug prophylaxis (prevention) and therapy (treatment) are generally accepted routine procedures. Technical Basis of Vaccination Classic vaccines can be divided into two groups according to the status of the organism or bioactive agent included as the antigen - live or killed (inactivated). The term “killed” is used when bacterial vaccines are discussed, whereas the term “inactivated” is used for vaccines used against viruses or toxins. 14 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE  There are relative advantages and disadvantages of live and killed vaccines. Two of the prerequisites of an ideal vaccine, high antigenecity and the absence of adverse side effects, tend to be mutually incompatible. Vaccines containing viable infectious agents stimulate the best immune response but have the potential to produce disease because of residual virulence, whereas the antigens in killed vaccines may be relatively poor immunogens but are usually much safer. The advantages of live vaccines include the following: strong and long-lasting immunity; few inoculating doses required; convenient as they can be given by nonparenteral routes (e.g., intranasal); adjuvants are unnecessary; less chance of hypersensitivity; and viral vaccines may stimulate interferon production. The advantages of killed vaccines are that they are unlikely to cause diseases because of residual virulence or reversion, and storage stability. Animals may be rendered immune to an infectious disease by passive or active immunization. Passive immunization provides temporary resistance by transferring antibodies from an animal that possesses them from a natural infection or vaccination to an animal that does not. The transfer of colostral immunoglobulins is an example. The pregnant animal develops an immune response to these antigens and produces antibodies that are concentrated in the colostrum and subsequently transferred to its offspring. Active immunization is the result of natural infection or vaccination, which involves the administration of an antigen to an animal so that it responds by developing a protective immune response that may be antibody- or cell-mediated, or both. Reimmunization or exposure to infection results in a secondary immune response. Protection is not developed immediately but usually requires several days or a few weeks; however, once established, it is long-lasting and capable of restimulation. PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE 15  Vaccine Efficacy What is vaccine efficacy? Efficacy could mean prevention of the disease in question, or control at an economic level. It could also mean that the vaccine is economical to use, because vaccinated animals may be more profitable than unvaccinated animals. Vaccine must be safe and capable of eliciting a protective response in the targeted host. This could mean protection from clinical disease or protection from infection by the pathogen. A criterion for protective efficacy must be established for each disease for which a vaccine is to be developed. Protection means that the vaccine constituents elicit reaction to the immune system to produce enough antibodies that will combat the disease agent in case the animal is exposed. Protective immunity can be established only by challenge of the vaccinated host for which the vaccine is intended with the respective pathogen under conditions resembling those of natural infection. Vaccination schedules for common diseases of livestock and poultry are presented in Table 4. The different injection types are listed in Table 5 while Figures 4 and 5 illustrate the intramuscular and subcutaneous injection sites. It is recommended that vaccination programs should be specific for a given locality or project. Vaccination against all common diseases may not be economically advisable in a particular setting. Also, in an area, there may be only one or two common diseases. With the help of a knowledgeable and experienced livestock and poultry specialist, the disease profile should be ascertained first before a vaccination program is institutionalized. 16 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE  Table 4. Schedules for vaccination against common diseases of livestock and poultry. Causative Vaccine Route of Subsequent Diseases Agent Types Administration 1st Dose 2nd Dose Dose Remarks Cattle and Carabao PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS Foot and Aphthovirus Inactivated IM 2-3 months 4-5 months Every six In FMD affected mouth types in alum months areas disease A, O, C Phil. hydroxide Hemor- Pasteurella Bacterin IM 2-3 months 6-8 months Annually - rhagic multocida septicemia Anthrax Bacillus Spore vaccine IM 4-6 months - Annually In anthrax anthracis zones Blackleg/ Clostridium Mixed bacterin IM 4-6 months - Annually In blackleg malignant chauvei/ zones edema septicum FOR Tetanus Clostridium Tetanus IM - - - Preventive tetani toxoid during open ANIMAL HEALTH CARE 17 castrations Sheep and Goat Foot and Aphthovirus Inactivated IM 2 months 4-5 months Every six In FMD affected mouth types in alum months areas disease A, O, C Phil. hydroxide Hemor- Pasteurella Bacterin IM 2months 4 months Annually - rhagic multocida septicemia  Table 4. (Continued). 18 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS Causative Vaccine Route of Subsequent Diseases Agent Types Administration 1st Dose 2nd Dose Dose Remarks Anthrax Bacillus Spore IM 4 months - Annually In anthrax anthracis vaccine zones Swine Foot and Aphthovirus Inactivated IM 1-2 months 3-4 months Semi- In FMD affected mouth in oil annually areas disease emulsion in case of FOR breeders and replace- ANIMAL HEALTH CARE ment stock Hog cholera Pestivirus Modified live IM 1-2 months 2-4 months Annually for Do not vaccinate breeders pregnant before animals weaning time Pseudorabies Porcine herpes Inactivated in IM 2-3 weeks 3-4 months Annually for Vaccine supply virus alum hydroxide breeders is presently or in oil before regulated by emulsion weaning the BAI-DA time Transmissible Coronavirus Inactivated in IM 4-5 months 6-7 months 3 weeks For breeders gastro- alum hydroxide before and replace- enteritis every ment gilts farrowing only. Modified live also available  Table 4. (Continued). Causative Vaccine Route of Subsequent Diseases Agent Types Administration 1st Dose 2nd Dose Dose Remarks Parvovirus Porcine Inactivated in IM 4-5 months 6-7 months 3 weeks For breeders infection parvovirus alum hydroxide before and replace- PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS or in oil every ment gilts emulsion farrowing only Piglet scours Escherichia Bacterin IM 4-5 weeks 1-2 weeks 2-3 weeks For breeders coli before before before only farrowing farrowing every subsequent farrowing Salmonellosis Salmonella Bacterin usually IM 2-4 weeks 3-4 months - For fattening cholerasuis mixed with after stock, 3rd dose E. coli and weaning may be Pasteurella sp. optional FOR depending on severity of ANIMAL HEALTH CARE 19 enzootic infections Pasteurellosis Pasteurella Bacterin IM 2-4 weeks 3-4 months - Repeat dose multocida usually mixed after before with E. coli and weaning breeding if Pasteurella sp. necessary Leptospirosis Leptospira sp. Polyvalent IM 1 week 3-4 months - Semiannual bacterin before booster doses weaning in breeders Mycoplasma Mycoplasma Inactivated in IM 2 weeks 2-3 weeks later - Semiannual pneumonia hyopneu- alum hydroxide or older booster doses or enzootic moniae in breeders pneumonia  Table 4. (Continued). 20 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS Causative Vaccine Route of Subsequent Diseases Agent Types Administration 1st Dose 2nd Dose Dose Remarks Poultry Marek’s Herpesvirus Live avirulent SC Day old - - Single dose only disease Turkey herpes Bivalent types virus available Newcastle Paramyxovirus Live mild and Drinking 1st-2nd week 3rd-5th week Before start Boosted when disease inactivated in water, with live of lay (in egg production oil emulsion eye drop vaccines layers, and decreases to FOR or spray breeders) below 30% with ANIMAL HEALTH CARE inactivated vaccine Gumboro Birnavirus Live mild and Drinking 1st week 3rd-5th week Before start Delay 1st and disease inactivated in water with live of lay (in 2nd dose in oil emulsion vaccine layers and birds with high breeders) maternal with immunity inactivated vaccine Infectious Coronavirus Mild live Drinking 1st-2nd week 3rd-5th week Before start Vaccine is also bronchitis monovalent water with live of lay (in incorporated or bivalent or spray vaccine layers and in NCD breeders) vaccines, e.g., with NCD-IB inactivated vaccine vaccine  Table 4. (Continued). Causative Vaccine Route of Subsequent Diseases Agent Types Administration 1st Dose 2nd Dose Dose Remarks Avian Picornavirus Modified Drinking 1st-2nd week 3rd-5th week - Cull infected encephalo- live water layers, PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS myelitis breeders Egg drop Adenovirus Inactivated Spray or 12-14 weeks 18-20 weeks - - syndrome in oil eyedrop emulsion Viral Reovirus Modified Spray or 1-2 weeks 3-4 weeks Before start - arthritis live and eyedrop with live with live of lay (in (leg weak- inactivated vaccine vaccine layers and ness/mal- in oil breeders) absorption emulsion with syndrome) inactivated vaccine FOR Infectious Fowl herpes Modified Spray or 2-3 weeks 5-6 weeks - - laryngotra- virus live eyedrop ANIMAL HEALTH CARE 21 cheitis Fowl pox Avian pox Modified Wing web - - - - virus live chicken stab pox virus or pigeon pox virus Fowl cholera Pasteurella Killed IM 8-10 weeks 12 weeks - - multocida bacterin  Table 4. (Continued). 22 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS Causative Vaccine Route of Subsequent Diseases Agent Types Administration 1st Dose 2nd Dose Dose Remarks Chronic Mycoplasma Live and Spray or SC 1-6 weeks 4 weeks Before start Do not medicate respiratory gallisepticum inactivated later of lay (in chicken with disease or in oil layers and antibacterial air sac emulsion breeders) drugs 5 days syndrome with before or inactivated after vaccine vaccination FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE Table 5. Injection types for cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat, and pig. Type of Injection Placement Placement Tips Intramuscular (IM) Into the muscle z Use a spot on the neck behind and below the ear. z Use proper needle size to ensure medication is deposited in the muscle. Subcutaneous (SQ) Under the skin z Inject only into clean, dry areas. z Use the loose flaps of skin in the flank of young animals. z Use the loose skin behind the ear of adults. z Slide needle under the skin away from the site of skin puncture before depositing the compound. Intravenous (IV) In the vein z Use only upon veterinary instruction and guidance because serious injury to the animal can occur. Fig. 4. Intramuscular injection for pigs. Fig. 5. Subcutaneous injection for piglets. PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE 23  Features of an Excellent Vaccine The quality of vaccines should not be compromised for a cheaper price. The following are important considerations in the choice of an ideal vaccine: 1. Highly immunogenic z Affords protection of at least 95% of vaccinates z Stimulates adequate levels of antibodies detectable by available assay procedures and can be differentiated from antibodies to field isolates. z Stimulates both the humoral and cellular immune responses. 2. Safety features z Does not produce disease in vaccinates z Does not spread infection to unvaccinated animals z Does not induce the carrier state in vaccinates z Does not revert to virulent state z Does not contain contaminants (other viruses and bacteria) z Does not cause toxic reactions z Does not cause disease in man z Does not cause allergic reactions in vaccinates 3. Stable in storage at ambient temperatures. 4. Cheap Guidelines for Vaccination/Use of Vaccines Vaccines are perishable products. Extra care and precautions are necessary in their proper use. The following guidelines should be observed at all time: 1. Vaccinate only healthy animals. Defer vaccination of sick ones until they fully recover. 24 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE 2. Do not vaccinate during very hot or wet weather. 3. Avoid stress on the animal during vaccination. In stressed animals, wait until they are relaxed/calm. 4. Do not buy or use expired vaccines and those with broken seals. Always check expiration dates and read label instructions. Check contents for any signs of damage like discoloration, moldy growth, and the like. 5. Store vaccines (“live” or “killed”) in the refrigerator or at cold temperature (20-60C). 6. Transport vaccines in ice chest or covered plastic/ styrofoam containers packed with ice. Do not place vaccines in your pockets. 7. In transporting vaccines, place them in a plastic bag with cracked/cubed ice. Preferably, place the bag in a bigger bag packed with cracked/cubed ice and put the bag in a covered plastic container or any appropriate container. 8. Prepare sterilized syringes and needles in advance. Sterilize them only by boiling for at least 15 minutes. Do not use chemical disinfectants. 9. Clean and wipe dry the surface of the rubber stopper of vaccine vials/bottles with sterile absorbent cotton before inserting needles. 10. Use only approved diluents for vaccines. Preferably use the one that comes with the vaccine. Mix diluent with vaccine only when ready for use. Avoid more than one- hour interval from mixing to actual use of the vaccine. 11. Dispose and burn vaccine containers and unused portions unless it will be used within an hour from time of reconstitution. In case of bacterins, unused portions of big quantities may be stored for a few days provided aseptic precautions have been followed when withdrawing the amount used. 12. Be ready against allergic reactions. Always have available epinephrine preparation ready for use within 2-3 minutes in case of anaphylactic shock. Record and report to immediate veterinary supervisor any untoward reactions of the vaccinates to vaccine. PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE 25 Regular Parasite Control Program Parasitism is the most commonly encountered disease in the rural areas and is generally believed by smallhold farmers to be the most important health problem. The tropical climate of the Philippines offers a haven for several species of parasites. The distribution of rainfall and the humid environment in a more or less defined period is conducive for the growth, multiplication, and perpetuation of parasites in the animals. Moreover, a wide range of possible intermediate or paratenic hosts coexists with animal parasites that permit the continuity of the parasite’s life cycle. The conventional method of raising animals in the countryside where goats, cattle, and carabaos are tethered in a common grazing area allows seeding of pasture with parasite eggs and eventual direct infection of the animals through the soil, grass, or arthropods that may carry the infective stage of the parasite. Likewise, chickens are let loose in the backyard to find their own food which render them susceptible to a number of parasite species that may be acquired through infected terrestrial or amphibious organisms. Economic losses from parasite burdens may be attributed to decrement in terms of body weight, milk, condemnation of organs or whole carcass, feed conversion efficiency, reproductive performance, and body resistance to other infections. It has been estimated that at least 10% of the total value of livestock is lost annually because of parasitism. The upgrading of the indigenous breeds of animals in the country in an attempt to improve animal performance has resulted to an increased susceptibility to parasite diseases. Native breeds are generally observed to have natural resistance to the effects of parasites. 26 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE  Parasite control programs should therefore be a part of any smallholder or semi-commercial farm operation to significantly reduce the economic losses due to parasitism. This will also improve the productivity and efficiency of the animals. Technical Basis of Parasite Control Program Types of Parasites and their Effects on the Host Parasites are broadly categorized based on their location, namely: 1. Ectoparasites – these are parasites found on the external surfaces of the body (e.g., skin and hairs) like lice, ticks, mites, and flies (Figs. 6-10) 2. Endoparasites – these are parasites which inhabit the internal body organs, e.g., lungworms, liverflukes, kidney worms, and intestinal worms (Figs. 11-19) Modes of Parasite Transmission Parasite infection in animals may develop in several ways. When the infective stage of the parasite finds its way to the body of the animal by ingestion or other means, without the involvement of another organism, the transmission is said to be mechanical. This mode of transmission applies to parasites with a direct life cycle (Figs. 20-23). On the other hand, establishment of parasites in the susceptible host through an organism where the infective stage of the parasite develops is a biological type of transmission. Parasites with indirect life cycles follow this manner of transmission (Fig. 24). PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE 27 Common Arthropods of Ruminants Fig. 6. Tabanus sp. (breeze Fig. 7. Boophilus microplus fly). (tropical cattle tick). Fig. 8. Damalinia limbata (biting louse). Common Parasites of Poultry Fig. 9. Ornithonyssus bursa Fig. 10. Goniodes sp. (large (tropical fowl mite). body louse). 28 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE Fig. 11. Ascaridia galli Fig. 12. Raillietina sp. (large roundworms). (tapeworm of poultry). Common Helminths of Ruminants Fig. 13. Moniezia sp. Fig. 14. Toxocara vitulorum (tapeworm). (common round- worm). Fig. 15. Amphistomes. Fig. 16. Fasciola sp. (liver fluke). PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE 29 Common Helminths of Swine Fig. 17. Ascaris suis (large Fig. 18. Stephanurus roundworm). dentatus (kidney worm). Fig. 19. Trichuris suis (whipworm). 30 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE  Adult develops in the intestine/ab omasum and la ys eggs Infective s tage ingeste d b y animals from herbage Eggs passed o ut with the feces L3 L2 L1 De velopme nt of larva on pasture Fig. 20. Life cycle of trichostrongyles. The majority of the larvae migrate to various tissues/ organs. During pregnancy, they also migrate to the uterus and infect the fetus via the fetal circulation. Some larvae find their way to the mammary gland thru the blood. Infective egg re-infest the mother Larvae may pass out with milk or colostrum and infect the calf Infective eggs are ingested by calf Larvae in Adults lay eggs small intestine which pass out with the feces Manure contaminated with eggs Infective larva develops in the eggs Fig. 21. Life cycle of Toxocara vitulorum in cattle and carabao. PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE 31  Adult worms inhabit the small intestine Host ingests embryonated eggs thru feed and water Larva develops inside egg (embryonated eggs) Eggs passed with feces 1. Larvae released in small intestine and penetrate wall 2. Larvae reach liver thru the peritoneal cavity 3. Larvae reach lungs from liver via blood circulation 4. Larvae in lungs migrate to the bronchial tree to the trachea to the pharynx - swallowed and mature in the small instestine. Fig. 22. Life cycle of Ascaris suis. 32 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE  Oocyst found and released in the caecal lumen Oocyst passed with feces Host ingests sporulated oocyst Excystation Sporulate on (sporozoites released) the outside (with sporozoites) Released as oocyst Macrogamate Schizont Zygote Microgamate Merozoites released and infest other uninfected cells and process is repeated Sperm released to fertilize macrogamate Fig. 23. Life cycle of coccidia (Eimeria tenella) in chicken. PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE 33  Metacercariae mature into adult flukes in the liver Adults lay eggs which are excreted into the Animal ingests intestine and metacercariae thru pass out with the contaminated water feces or grasses Adult flukes in bile ducts of In water liver miracidium develops in eggs Cercariae encyst on grasses, water or settle in the bottom as metacercariae Mature cercariae emerge from snail Miracidum hatches and enters the snail and further develops and multiplies Many cercariae are formed from a single miracidium Sporocyst Redia Fig. 24. Life cycle of common liver fluke. 34 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE  The following are possible ways by which parasite infections could be acquired: 1. ingestion of infective stage through food and water 2. ingestion of infective stage through arthropods (e.g., grasshopper, cockroaches, mites, beetles, ants, and dragonflies) 3. ingestion of infective stage through snails, slugs, and earthworms 4. inoculation of infective stage through bites of arthropods (e.g., tick and flies) 5. penetration of the infective stage through the skin 6. ingestion of infective larvae through the milk 7. transplacental transmission Most common parasites affecting domestic animals and their mode of transmission are listed in Tables 6 and 7. Mixed or multiple infection where individual animal harbors two or more parasite species is common. Under Philippine conditions, it is rare to find just one species of gastrointestinal nematodes in one animal, like in goats, where there is an unlimited access to a variety of worm species on pasture. The farming system in the rural areas is also contributory to the transmission of parasite diseases. Improper housing, grazing management, and stock movement are some of the factors that favor the high parasitic load of animals. Depending on factors such as host animal species, number and location of parasites, the movement and virulence of the parasite, the age, and nutritional status as well as the immunity of the host, parasites cause damage to the host by the following means resulting in decreased productivity and profitability. 1. By absorbing part of the digested nutrient of the host, e.g., roundworms and tapeworms 2. By sucking blood or lymph, e.g., hookworms and trichostrongyles in the intestines of ruminants 3. By feeding on the tissues of the host, e.g., maggots of blowflies PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR ANIMAL HEALTH CARE 35  Table 6. Common ectoparasites affecting livestock and poultry and the diseases associated with them. 36 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS Scientific Name Common Name Disease/ Condition Caused Disease Transmitted Cattle and Carabao Ectoparasites Tick Boophilus microplus Tropical cattle tick Tick worry; development Babesiosis, Anaplasmosis of wounds Lice Hematopinus quadripertusus Sucking louse Unthriftiness; itching Hematopinus tuberculatus Sucking louse FOR Solenopotes sp. Sucking louse Linognathus vituli Long-nosed cattle louse ANIMAL HEALTH CARE Bovicola bovis Biting louse Mites Sarcoptes scabiei Mange mite Cattle scab, mange or itch, Psoroptes communis Mange mite anemia Chorioptes bovis Mange mite Demodex bovis Mange mite Biting / Blood Sucking Flies Tabanus reduscens Breezefly Fly worry; predisposes to Surra, Anaplasmosis Tabanus striatus Breezefly myiasis or secondary Lyperosia exigua Hornfly bacterial infection Stomoxys calcitrans Stablefly Simulium sp. Blackfly, Buffalo gnat Onchocerca sp. Culex sp. Mosquito  Myiasis Flies Chrysomyia bezziana Screw worm fly Myiasis Booponus intonsus Philippine foot maggot fly Calliphora sp. Blue bottle fly Lucilia sp. Green bottle fly Sarcophaga sp. Flesh fly PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS Sheep and Goat Ectoparasites Ticks Boophilus microplus Tropical cattle tick Tick worry Lice Damalinia limbata Biting louse Unthriftiness; poor coat Damalinia caprae Biting louse Linognathus africanus Sucking louse FOR Mites Psoroptes communis Mange mite Mange or Scabies ANIMAL HEALTH CARE 37 var caprae Psorochorioptes sp. Mange mite Thrombidid sp. - Sarcoptes scabiei var caprae Mange mite Swine Ectoparasites Lice Haematopinus suis Sucking louse Unthriftiness; poor body coat  Table 6. (Continued). 38 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS Scientific Name Common Name Disease/ Condition Caused Disease Transmitted Tick Haemaphysalis sp. Mites Sarcoptes scabiei var suis Mange mite Mange; crusts and excoriations in hairless areas of the body Biting / Blood Sucking Flies Culex sp. Mosquitoes Fly worry; irritation, wounds FOR Anopheles sp. Mosquitoes Stomoxys calcitrans Stablefly ANIMAL HEALTH CARE Culicoides sp. Biting midges, Punkies or no-see-um Simulium sp. Blackfly, Buffalo gnat Poultry Ectoparasites Lice Menopon gallinae Shaft louse Ruffled feathers and scab