Philosophy: Introduction and Overview PDF

Philosophy comes from the Greek words, **philo** which means **[love]** and **sophia** which means **[wisdom]**. Thus, philosophy is literally defined as ***love of wisdom***. As such, man, a rational and sentient being is the only being capable of searching for wisdom. He, then, is the only creatur...

Philosophy comes from the Greek words, **philo** which means **[love]** and **sophia** which means **[wisdom]**. Thus, philosophy is literally defined as ***love of wisdom***. As such, man, a rational and sentient being is the only being capable of searching for wisdom. He, then, is the only creature who possesses the ability to ask questions as his ultimate tool in search for what is a true knowledge or wisdom. - Co (2009) states that only humans **can** and **need** to philosophize because of their **uncertainties**, which manifest themselves as **doubts**. Therefore, we may say that philosophy **[begins]** and **[ends]** with **[humans]**. - ***Caraan*** (2016) reiterates that the ability to ***inquire*** or ***ask questions*** is **inherent** to all human beings. The act of asking questions is the person's way of **[making sense]** of all the things around him or her that he or she does not understand. The term **inherent** signifies that **[at birth]**, man is endowed with the skill to know the truth and this capability brings man on top of God's creatures. Thus, the beginning of knowledge is attributed to man's ability to wonder about the things around them and the things which eyes cannot perceive physically as in the case of **metaphysics** or the so-called **ontological questions**. The internet and other references point out that in doing philosophical endeavor, the process of **[wondering]** and **[questioning]** are always considered as the sources of knowledge. This is true. However, a deeper knowledge is not obtained by simply asking a question because the subject of philosophy is different from that of non-philosophical subject. - For ***Caraan*** (2016), what is considered as **[philosophical subjects]** are ***matters a reflective person believes in, counts as real, and considers as good which shapes his or her life***. The example above needs a simple recall only which does not entail true reflective process. - **Philosophy** is defined as ***the knowledge of all things in their first principles or causes as seen by natural right of reason.*** In other words, philosophy is knowledge being both human and divine (Javines, 2009). - The process of doing philosophy as a way to search for true knowledge and wisdom makes man ***arrogant*** over other creatures. In ancient period, the term **wise** signifies an important title to a person who is able to rationalize and find the ultimate causes of reality. - The term simply manifests perfection which humans cannot attain no matter how they strive to achieve it using their mind and intellect. Thus, ***Pythagoras*** attributed the term **[wise]** only to **[God]** whose nature is perfect as His existence. But for man, Pythagoras used the term **philosopher** who is an imperfect being striving for perfection through his/her own human nature. Even ***Socrates*** believed ***that "only God is truly wise".*** - Philosophy **leads us to a broader understanding of man and experience.** - Philosophy **gives man pleasure or satisfaction** - Philosophy **serves man a better understanding of themselves and their fellow human beings.** - **Philosophy acquaints a person to the various philosophical thinkers of the past and of their time.** - **Philosophy will guide them in making day-to-day decision of life and experiences.** - **Philosophy gives other sciences a sense of meaning.** - The **[first]** noble truth is ***that human life is pervaded by suffering***. - **[Second]**, ***suffering is a result of craving***. - **[Third]**, ***there is a state of freedom from suffering - called Nirvana*** - that we can all attain by realizing that we are not Selves, thus abandoning the craving. - **[Fourth]**, ***anyone can attain Nirvana by following the Eightfold Path*** A. **OBJECTIVE DOMAIN** B. **SOCIAL DOMAIN** C. **PERSONAL DOMAIN** Objective Domain Social Domain Personal Domain ---------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- pertains to the natural world (scientific) "truth" is the same with a general agreement or consensus on what is right/wrong "truth" is the same with a general agreement or consensus on what is right/wrong truths are tested against empirical evidence truths are tested against their acceptability to a particular group in a particular time in history truths are tested against the consistency and authenticity of the person who claims it - There is only one thing that cannot be doubted, and that is, doubt itself. - Doubting is thinking, therefore, thinking cannot likewise be doubted. - The more he doubts that he's thinking, the clearer it appears that he is actually thinking. - If there is ***doubting*** and ***thinking***, then there must also be ***[thinker]*** anda ***[doubter]***. - ***"I am! I exist!"*** When one thinks, one intuitively/immediately realizes that he exists. - "**dubito, ergo cogito, ergo sum"** - ***Yin and Yang***. Something can both be ***yin*** and ***yang*** at the same time; there is no pure yin or pure yang. - It has an ability to transform into the other - Everything is ***Qi*** (energy) - Unlike Western, Taoist thought stresses that human being is ***[one with the universe]***: everything that happens in the universe will ultimately affect man and everything that man does will affect the universe Common Sense Higher Meaning As Spiritual System --------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- the way of doing anything, or the pathway to some destination the way of the universe, the way things are the way to achieving a true understanding of the nature of mind and reality, to the way of living in harmony with the changes of nature ***OPINION VS. TRUTH*** **Opinion -** a statement of judgment of a person about something in the world. A statement of judgment that in need of further justification FOR AN OPINION TO GAIN THE STATUS OF TRUTH, IT MUST BE ABLE TO PASS THE ***TEST OF JUSTIFICATION***. WHOEVER MAKES AN OPINION MUST BE ABLE TO ARGUE FOR IT ***IN THE MOST [REASONABLE WAY]***. **TRUE ARGUMENTS VS. FAKE ARGUMENTS (FALLACIES)** ***FALLACIES:*** 1\. **Argumentum ad Hominem** (*Argument against the Person*)\ 2. **Argumentum ad Baculum** (*Appeal to force*)\ 3. **Argumentum ad Misericordiam** (*Appeal to Pity*)\ 4. **Argumentum ad Populum** (*Bandwagon fallacy*) **METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING:** **1. SOCRATIC METHOD:** This method refers to a process of ***[asking open-ended questions]*** that are committed to finding the truth. It usually takes the form of a **dialogue** in which people discuss and analyze a specific subject matter. It is like a **cross-examination**. It is also a strategy of teaching any subject matter between a teacher and a student. (Zack, 2010) How does one employ the Socratic Method? Usually, Socrates would ask questions based on what the person believes. Sometimes this method may result in one feeling ashamed. However, when one uses this method, he/she does not seek to harm or destroy a person; instead, the goal is to correct one\'s opinions and lead him/her to the truth. **2. DIALECTICAL METHOD:** The term '**dialectics**' is derived from the Greek word *[dialego]*, which means to **debate** or **discuss**. Although the dialectical method has its roots in ancient Greek philosophy, the dialectical method emphasized here is the one developed mostly by modern philosophers, such as **Hegel** and **Marx**. It is a method of studying and understanding the real development and change (Cornforth, 2015). ***[Reality]*** is in constant **conflict**. The dialectical method arises from the ***[opposing realities]***, and even contradictions are derived from applying the philosophical categories (Borchert, 2006). Hence the formula of the dialectical method is a **thesis** versus **antithesis** results in **[synthesis]**. However, a synthesis becomes a new thesis that will be opposed by another antithesis, which will result in another synthesis. This process goes on and on until it reaches its **pure synthesis**. Unlike a debate that has a winner/loser, the dialectic method, on the other hand, is not concerned about winning or losing but about **seeking new ideas** that arise from a conflict. Thus, the dialectical method admits the presence of the conflicts, proceeds from the whole truth of the conflict and gives birth to a new thesis: the synthesis. **3. PHENOMENOLOGICAL METHOD:** The word phenomenology comes from the two Greek words: ***phainomenon***, which means **appearance**, and ***logos***, which means **study or reason**. A phenomenon is that which appears to the consciousness of the mind. In this sense, Phenomenology investigates the essence of nature of the things that appear to a person. For **Edmund Husserl**, phenomenology is \"***the science of the essence of consciousness***\" (Smith, 2006). Here is how to apply the method of Husserl\'s phenomenology (Zahavi, 2002): 1\. **Bracketing**: This process is also called ***epoché***, which means **[to abstain]**. The person\'s experience, beliefs, and learnings are bracketed or **[\'set aside]**\' to see the thing in itself. In philosophy, this refers to the ***unpacking of a certain reality***. Thus, one has to let go of his/her **biases** and **prejudices**, enclose them, and put them aside. 2\. **Eidetic reduction.** This is the movement from fact to essence, a transcendental reality that refers to the **immateriality of things**, such as ***thoughts***, ***feelings***, ***memories***, etc. This process seeks what is necessary to a thing, such as, 'what makes a chair a chair? It collects only those attributes from which a thing cannot be without them. A person will experience the **\'Aha**\' moment, wherein he/she realizes the meaning of the thing in itself, the essential nature of the thing as experienced. How each person sees things may differ from one another, but with this phenomenological method, one can understand the **essence** of one\'s lived experience. Indeed, one\'s experience is never taken for granted in the search for truth. **4. HERMENEUTICS METHOD:** The term hermeneutics is usually associated with the Greek god, **Hermes**, who was the ***[messenger]*** between gods and humans. It is derived from ***hermêneuein*** or ***hermêneusai*** and ***hermêneia***, which means **interpreting** or **interpretation** (Keane & Lawn, 2016 & Malpas & Gander, 2015). **Friedrich Schleiermacher\'s** system is called **romanticist hermeneutics**. The aim of hermeneutics is \"***to capture the truth of the text***.\" The truth is taken from how the author originally meant something. To achieve this, **[one starts from the subjective interpreter]** (or the reader himself), then considers the **[historical and the cultural context]** to grasp the original authorial intention (Demeterio, 2001). The reader should check the **author\'s historical background** and **the period** when the author said/wrote something. Hence, considering those factors will make the reader/interpreter dig out the truth of the text. **CONCLUSION:** The search for truth is like a ***vocation*** -- a **calling**. There may be only one call, but there can be different ways of answering the call. In other words, the methods of philosophizing may vary, but they are all guided by and directed towards the truth. **I. UNDERSTANDING THE HUMAN PERSON** **A. Ancient Period *(Cosmo centric):*** 1\. **Hedonism** Some people see life in a perspective that **gives significance to pleasure more than misery**. They believe that, ***"Life is too short, just enjoy!"*** These are those people who believe that a body is composed of matter even the soul. Thus, man has nothing to worry about when they die because like their body, their soul may likewise disintegrate, too. **Fear of final judgment is an uncommon concept in this philosophy**. **Epicureanism** advocates **hedonism**, from the Greek word ***[pleasure]***. Pleasure is the only good in life (Nerry, 2010). **Epicurus** philosophical theory is called ***"atomistic materialism"***, deduced from **Democritus**. According to this theory, the universe is composed of matter *(in the form of atoms)* in motion in empty space. All physical bodies, including human beings, are the results of combinations of these atoms (Nerry, 2010). 2\. **Stoicism** Another perspective on how man views life which is not only a place where pleasure should reign all the time but beyond this, **sacrifices** **play an important aspect to *make it more valuable***. **Epictetus** was the most influential of all of the stoic philosophers who was born in Heiropolis (Asia Minor) about the middle of the 1st century A.D. (Nerry, 2010). **Manual of Epictetus Ethical Teachings (Nerry, 2010)** 3\. **Plato** Dichotomy of the Body and Soul **BODY** Material Subject to Change and Destructions SOUL Immaterial Unchanging Authentic Part **TRIPARTITE FUNCTIONS OF THE SOUL** Rational Head - Does the soul's rational function which enables human person to think, analyze, comprehend, make decisions - It guides the Passion and Appetitive functions Passion Chest - Performs the actions dictated by reason - Responsible for various feelings (hatred and anger) Appetitive Abdomen - enables a person to experience cravings or anything that deals with man's physical wants 4\. **Aristotle** - the soul and the body are substantially united - **NO dichotomy** of ***body*** and ***soul*** - **soul** -- Greek: ***psyche*** = ***[source of life]*** - The body is not the principle of life, for it is always in potentiality. - It needs a "form" to be in actuality (alive). - **Anything that lives has a soul**. **3 Types of Soul** 1. **Vegetative** - plants can grow, reproduce and feed themselves but it cannot feel and think 2. **Sensitive** - it shares with vegetative soul (*growing, feeding, reproducing*) -capable of sensing or feeling (*desire, anger, and pain are experienced)* 3. ***Rational** - -it shares with vegetative and sensitive\ -it has the capacity for scientific thoughts\ -it deliberates and discovers the truth of the nature of things and the guidelines for human behavior* ***B. Medieval Period (Theocentric):*** *1. **St. Augustine*** - ***God** created the world including the immortal soul* - *human being is a **[soul embodied in a material substance]** soul = self sustaining substance* - *the **authentic person** of man is the **soul within him*** - *the **soul** **animates** (**[gives life]**) the **human body*** *2. **St. Thomas Aquinas*** - *the **soul is dependent on the body**, in **the same way as** the **body is dependent on the soul*** -- -- -- -- - *without the soul, the body will not have its form, and without the body, the soul will not have its required sense organs to gain knowledge* ***C. Modern Period (Anthropocentric):*** *1. **Rene Descartes*** - *he believed that the **destruction of the physical body** **does not mean** the **destruction of the mind*** - *he believed that the individual is responsible for himself* - *"**There is a tendency for us to live our lives in a more detached way from our experiences**."* - *(medical professionals/lawyers/business people)* 2\. **John Locke** - the human mind could not attain any knowledge without **perceiving it** (empiricist) - the human mind is "***tabula rasa***" or blank slates - **knowledge** **is acquired only through sensory experiences** - **human knowledge is limited** therefore **we should be aware of such limitations** 3\. **Gabriel Marcel** - we do not just say "***I have a body***." (body as object) but also "***I am my body***." - our bodies are not just objects; **[It is our being]**. **II. THE HUMAN BODY AND HUMAN LIMITATIONS** 1. BODILY LIMITATIONS 2. SOCIAL LIMITATIONS 1. NATURAL DISABILITIES (at birth) 2. MENTAL AND INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES (Anxiety/emotional disorders) 1. SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS 2. SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT (Armed/ disorganized/violent) - the **act** of **surpassing** our **limitations** - to transcend is **to go beyond the ordinary** - we carry within ourselves the possibility of transcending our limits by exerting enough effort and perseverance - ***while the body limits us, the very same limitations create opportunities for us***