Neuroscience Lecture Notes PDF

Chapter 1 : Biopsychology as a Neuroscience 1 1. Defining Biopsychology Biopsychologye scientific...

Chapter 1 : Biopsychology as a Neuroscience 1 1. Defining Biopsychology Biopsychologye scientific study of the biology of behavior Neuroscience e scientific study of the nervous system Psychology- scientific study of behavior 1. 2 2. Experiments and Non Experiments Between Subjects Design e an experimental design in which a different group of subjects is tested under each condition ↳ different tested under different conditions groups are Within Subjects Design - an experimental design in which the same subjects are tested under each condition ↳ the is tested under multiple conditions same subject Independent Variable e the variable , or variables the , researcher manipulates e g drugs. Dependent Variable e the variable measured for changes e g. behavior Confounded Variable e Unintended differences in other conditions that can affect the dependent variable e time of. g testing Quasi experimental Studies& studies of of subjects exposed groups who have been to the conditions of interest in the real world eg you. want to assess whether alcohol consumption causes brain damage individuals/Situations Generalizability+ the degree to which the results of a study can be applied to other 1 2 3.. Pure and Applied Research Pure Researche motivated by desire to find out how things work Applied Researche tries to answer a specific problem with a direct benefit to humans Animal Studies e 1. Comparative Method Human Studies - 1. Humans can follow instructions ↳ the brain will look mostly the same , but comparing to human brain benefits human research. 2 Can report subjective experiences ↳ in animal studies psychological processes from. Simplerbraisy 2 we infer behavior smaller brains to see cause and effect relationshia 3. Cheaper than animals. Fewer 3 ethical restrictions 4. Greater ethical constraints ↳ & doing moreinvasive te n s a no invasive procedures 1 3. Divisions of Biopsychology NEUROSCIENCE Neuropathology -> study of the effect of drugs On neural activity Neuropharmacology e study of nervous system disorders Neuroanatomy Neuropharmacology Neurophysiology- the study of the functions and activities of nervous system Neuroendocrinology study of interactions blu nervous and endocrine systems Neuropathology Biopsychology Neurochemistry - study of chemical bases of neural activity Neurochemistry Neurophysiology Neuroanatomy a study of struc ture of nervous system Neuroendocrinology benarioae sum to physicsa comparing behavior  1. 4 1. Scientific Inter ference Converging Operationse the use of several research approaches to solve a single problem The Case of Jimmie. G 3 - age 49 cannot form new memories (Anterograde AmnesialKorsakoff's neuropsychological , and disorder common in alcoholics whos primary symptoms are memory loss , sensory > - has some short ter m memory , lasts a few mins motor dysfunction , and severe dementia -high scores of intelligence Hypothesis e Alcohol = Jimmie G's amnesia ↳ can't conclude this is the cause ↳ its correlational other causes , many To test : Quasi experimental method Alcohol E Korsakof Syndrome Vitamin B7 Korsakof Syndrome deficiency = Thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency & Korsakoffs Syndrome (Quasi-) (Experimental Malnourished people and thiamine deficient rats show memory loss and brain damage similar to that of alcoholics Alcoholic's brain damaging effects : indirect Alcohol has direct effects on the brain. Alcoholic's 1 1. Alcohol accelerates lack vitamins - low thiamine intake. neurodegeneration. Alcohol 2 inter feres with metabolism 1. 5 Biopsychological Claims 1. 1 5. Evaluating biopsychological claims Scientific Interference - Observe consequences of unobservable processes and from these logically infer the nature of those processes Critical Thinking +the process of recognizing the weakness of existing ideas and the evidence on which they are based Jose and the Bull Taming of bull charging caudate stimulationa ia a with Jose Delgado said infront of the press that he could stop a charging bull ↳ put electrodes on one half of the brain to control when neurons fire it > - Dull was charging but when the button was pressed stopped ↳ reduced possibly aggressive behaviour ↳ said he found the "taming Center' Conclusion e the caudate nucleus regulates aggression is is a > what - it really : the caudate nucleus motor control center ↳ parkinsons disease Problems withConclusion of the Experiment 1 Media I examined. event not critically 2. Simpler explanations ignored a Parsimony 3. When film was assessed it was noted : bull rotated in circles When Stimulation was applied Occams Razor Law of Parsimony I ideas the simpler , two competing to explain something , answer should be preferred Morgans Canon e the rule that the Simplest possible interpretation for a behavioral Observation should be given precedence  Sept 05 2024 , Chapter 3 : Anatomy of the Nervous System 3 1. Layout of Nervous System. 1 17 divisions of the 3. nervous system Peripheral Nervous System Efferent nerves 1. Somatic. Autonomic 2 ↳ interacts ↳ composed with external of factors afferent nerves ↳ regulates ↳ composed of the internal afferent environment nerves ↳carriesmotorgasa or the internal organ a signalsfrom ↳carries Sensory the ↳carries sensory Signasforis nervous system AutonomicsympatheticnervesprojectfromintoareasoftheSpinalcord(lumbar to case NERVOUS SYSTEM Cranial Nerves : 12 pairs that project from the brain Central Nervous System Parasympathetic Nervous , optic, olfactory Auditory = Sensory system Brain Spinal Cord Somatic Nervous Autonomic Nervous system system Afferentto Efferent Afferent Nerves Efferent Nerves parasympathetic sympathetic Nervous Nervous system System. 1 2e 3. Meninges 3 Meninges : protective layers that cover the brain and spinal cord Dura : Outer layer , hardest layer Arachnoid Membrane middle : gauzelike Spiderweb , layer Pia Mater : delicate, inner most layer. 1 3 Ventricles and Cerebralspinal 3. Fluid Cerebral Spinal fluid : Fluid that fills the Subarachnoid Space , central canal , and cerebral ventricles I nternal chambers of ↳ ↳runsthrouga the brain : 2 lateral and 4th ventricle , 3rd 1. Supports and cushions the brain 2. produced by choroidPlexusa protrude intoventricles froea CSF. 1 3. 4 Blood Brain Barrier Blood Brain Barrier : a mechanism that impedes the of toxic from the blood into the brain passage substances. structure ↳ of cerebral blood vessels ↳ tightly packed to prevent passage ↳ does impede passage for function not of everything , e g glucose. that is essential brain 3 2. Cells of Nervous System.2 1 3. Anatomy of Neurons cell body : metabolic center of neuron e soma Myelin : fatty insulation around axon Nodes of Ranvier : blu sections of myelin gaps Buttons : endings of axon branches , release chemicals into synapses Synapses : gaps blu adjacent neurons across which chemical signals are transmitted composed of lipid bilayer ↳ channel proteins ↳ signal proteins classes of Neurons · F · Multipolar - more than two processes extending from cell body. o · Unipolar y one process extending from cell body ⑳ Bipolar e two processes extending from cell body - Interneuron > - short , or no axons at all , functions is to integrate unipolar bipolar multipolar interneuron within a brain neural activity single structure Neuroanatomical Structure Nuclei - DNA containing structures of cells : Clusters of cell bodies in CNS Tracts e bundles of axons in CVS PNS Ganglia e clusters n euronal cell bodies of in the Nerves > bundles - of axons in PNS 3.2 2. Glia : Forgotten Cells Glial Cells : classes of non-neural cells of the nervous system ↳ roughly two glial for every 3 neurons kinds of Glial Cells Oligodendrocytes e cells that myelinate axons of the CNS Myelin Sheath - covering on axons of neurons : increase speed/efficiency of axonal conduction Myeline fatty insulating substance Schwann Cells e cells that compose myelin sheaths of PNS axons to promote growth of PNs axons Microglia glial & cells that respond to injury or disease by engulfing cellular debris and triggering inflammatory responses Astrocytes + large , star shaped glial cells , plays multiple functioning roles in CNS 1. cover blood vessels and contact neurons 2. regulate chemical passage blu blood and CNS neurons 3. synapse formation , neural activity, and maintain blood brain barrier regulate 4. Involved w waste management and transport.3 3 Neuroatomical Techniques and Directions.3 1 3. Neuroatomical Techniques * focus on external neuron features Golgi Stain e a stainthat completelydares is a & dendrite Spines Slice of tissue , revealing their silhouettes Nissl Stain e a neural stain that has an affinity > axons for structures in neuron cell bodies - hippocampus & Mitochondria Electron Microscopy+ used to study fine details of cellular structures ↳ shows whats happening in the cell s synaptic vesicles NeuroatomicalTracingtracking pathora Retrograde : innervated area e cell bodies 3.3 4. Directions in Nervous System Crostral) (caudal) Anterior > - towards nose end of Vertebrae Posterior e toward tail end of vertebrae (back of head Dorsal e towards the sur face of the back (top of head) Ventral e towards chest sur face (bottom of head) Medial Lateral I towards midline of the body + away from the midline Proximal - close to something Distal e far from something Horizontal Section e cutting brain parallel to top of brain Frontal (coronal Section e cutting brain parallel to the face Sagittal Section - cutting brain parallel to side of brain.4 3 Anatomy of CNS.4 1 3. Spinal Cord Grey Mattere gray areas of the nervous system be they are composed of cell bodies and unmyelinated interneurons White Matter White > - of the be areas nervous system they are composed of myelinated axons Dorsal Horns + the two dorsal arms of the spinal grey matter Ventral Hornse the two ventral arms of the spinal grey matter Dorsal Root Ventral Root neurons sensory (afferent) - axons & ventral root are motor are unipolar neurons (efferent) multipolar neurons > - pairs of spinal nerves are attached to theSpinal cord >cellbodiesofdorsalroa - > ventral - root neurons in the SNS to the Skeletal muscleso project 62 root ganglia outside Spinal the neurons - nerves divide cord , and the axons of two dorsal e Ventral roof the ANS near the join via one roots : root + Ventral 2 synaptic root terminals of DRN are in in the dorsal horn of spinal project to ganglia , then to the internal gray matter organs telencephalon. 4. 2 3 Five divisions of the brain diencephalon major Forebrain e Telencephalon (L + R Cerebral hemispheres > - Diencephalon mesencephalon - Midbrain > - Mesencephalon Hindbrain a Metencephalon metencephalon > - Myelencephalon (medulla) -myelencephalon.4 3 3. Myelencephalon Myelencephalon - most posterior of the brain divisions : the medulla Reticular Formation nuclei the of the brain -> a network of 100 tiny that occupy central core stem Functions : Reticular formation ↳ sleep , attention, movement , muscle tone, Cardiac + circulatory + respiratory reflexes Myencephalon ↳ composed of tracts that carry signals blu the brain and the rest of the body.4 4 3. Metencephalon Metencephalon -> includes the pons and Cerebellum Pons e metencephalic structure that creates a bulge on the ventral sur face of the brain ↳ 4 passage of fibres origin of 3 cranial nerves (Facial Abducens Trigeminal , , Cerebellum e metencephalic structure that is to participate the of thought in storage memories of learned Sensorimotor Skills ↳ 3.4 5. Mesencephalon Mesencephalon & includes the tectum and tegmentum Tectum e roof/ dorsal surface , includes superior + inferior Colliculi i Tegmentum eventral division , includes e periaqueductal gray aqueduct contains opiate receptors and activates descending analgesia circta :graymatteraround cerebral , a cerebral aqueduct : nar row channel asubstanigrineurons project pathway strianofbasil ganglia part of dopamine s i s thatconnect ,  3. 4. 6 Diencephalon Diencephalon - composed of the thalamus + hypothalamus Thalamus e two lobed structure that constitutes anterior part of brain stem ↳ nuclei are sensory relay that project to cortex ↳ two lobes are joined by massa intermedia Hypothalamuse sits below anterior portion of thalamus ↳ regulation of behavior (eating sleeping, role in , etc ↳ partners with pituitary gland ↳ release of hormones Thalamus Sensory Relay Center Lateral Geniculate Nuclei - receive input from retina and transmit to primary Visual cortex Medial Geniculate Nucleie receive input from inferior colliculi and transmit to primary auditory cortex Frontal Parietal 3.4 7. Telencephalon fissure Telencephalon - superior of the 5 brain divisions longitudinal ↳ voluntary movement, sensory input , Cognitive processes (separates two cerebral nemispheres) occipital Temporal Cerebral cortex - > composed of small unmyelinated neurons Fissures + Gyrus & large furrows in a convoluted located cortex blu fissures Sulcuse small sulci furrows in a convoluted cortex g Suicus Cortical ridges that are or Ogyrus Cerebral Commissures + tract that connects the L + R hemispheres ↳ corpus callosum : largest cerebral commissure Fissures and Gyri ⑪ Central Fissure > - Separates frontal lobe from parietal lobe Lateral Fissure e Separates temporal lobe from frontal lobe Precentral Gyrus- > located anterior to central fissure : motor function Postcentral Gyrus e located posterior to Central fissure : Somatosensory Neocortex + six layered Cortex : Constitutes 90 % of human Cerebral cortex Two types of Cortical Neurons Pyramidal Cells e large multipolar neuron with ; pyramid shape apical dendrite , , long a xo n Stellate Cells e small interneuron with ; star shape , shor t axon Hippocampus e structure of medial temporal lobe that plays a role in memory.4 8 3 Limbic. System and the Basil Ganglia Limbic System collection of interconnected nuclei e and tracts that ring the thalamus ↳ of behavior feeding regulation : Fleeing fighting , , , and sexual behavior Amygdala I almond shaped nucleus in temporal lobe Cingulate Cortex e cortex of cingulate gyri Fornix e tract in limbic system : hippocampus with septum and bodies connects mammillary & midline nucleus of limbic system Basil Ganglia e subcortical nuclei (Striatum + globus pallidus Caudate+ tail like structure that is part of striatum Putamen e structure that is joined to caudate by Fiber bridges (putamen + caudate = Striatum Cha ster 2 : Evolu tion , Genetics and , Experience.3 2 Fundamental Genetics 2 3 1.. Mendelian Genetics Dichotomous Traits -> traits that occur in one form or the other, never in combination True Breeding Lines e breeding lines in which interbred members always produce offspring with the same trait Dominant Trait & trait of dichotomous individuals pair that is expressed in phenotypes of heterozygous Recessive Trait trait of dichotomous individuals e pair that is not expressed in phenotypes of heterozygous Phenotype e an organisms observable traits Genotype e traits that an organism can pass on to its offspring Gene -> a unit of inheritance : the section of a chromosome that controls protein Synthesis Alleles + two that trait genes control the same Homozygous+ two identical genes for a trait Heterozygous - two different genes for a trait.3 2 2. Chromosomes Chromosomes + threadlike structures in the cell nucleus that contain the genes : each chromosome is a DNA molecule ↳ each thread has 23 pairs ; two alleles that control traits Structure + Replication Deoxyribonucleic Acid & (DNA) : double stranded , coiled molecule of genetic material Nucleotide Bases - class of chemical substances : Adenine Thymine , , Guanine , Cytosine d Replication e the process of when a DNA molecule duplicates itself Mutations e accidental alterations in individual Genes Sex Chromosomes + Sex Linked Traits Autosomal Chromosomese chromosomes that come in matched pairs Sex Chromosomes + pair of chromosomes that determine Sex : XX = Female XY = male Sex Linked Traitse traits influenced blindness that are by genes on sex chromosomes e g. color in men. 3 3 2. Genetic Code + Gene Expression Proteins e long of 3 theycontrol physiological chains amino acids activitya ↳ proteins building blocks of Promoterse certain stretchesof bwhofunctionis to determine whether or not structural genes are convert a Gene Expressione production of the protein specified specific gene by a Activators e proteins that bind to DNA and increase gene expression Repressors - proteins that bind to DNA and decrease gene expression Transcription - 1st phase of gene expression : a strand of RNA (mRNA) is transcribed from one exposed DNA strand and from the carries the genetic code nucleus to the cytoplasm of the cell Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) y molecule similar to DNA , except has nucleotide base uracil , and a phosphate and ribose backbone ↳ instead of thymine (mRNA) Messenger RNA e Strand of RNA transcribed from DNA and then moves out of cell nucleus where it is translated to a protein Transmission Nongenomic J ↳ and high licking grooming.3 5 2 Growth of. Epigenetics moms produce offspring with lower and stress anxiety ↳ cross Fostering pups with bad Epigenetics e the study of all mechanisms of inheritance other than those mediated by changes to the gene Sequence of DNA momstogoodmoms asa ↳ in in specific cells , in relation to chemical changes gene expression processes ↳ Influenced environmental by : signals , relevant stimuli ↳ 3 dosent change in phenotype that involve DNA mutation CF Lamarck. e Heritability of Traits ↳ heritable across generations Low momst grooming DNA Methylation - an epigenetic mechanism where a methyl group attaches to a DNA molecule , at cytosine cite Promoter region ↳ can & or ↓ gene expression ↳ High methylation = reduced transcription ↳toturnoff gene expression one ↳ DNA ↳ ↳ methylation catalyzed by Methyltransferases methylation can be passed to offspring on promoter region ↳ enzyme Glucocorticoid Receptor ↳ stress hormone ↳ DNMT's ↳ Moms influences how open the chromatin is High Grooming ↳ how its wrapped tightly ↳ without methylation NGFIA can access promoter region to de-myleniate genes Histone Remodelling I an epigenetic mechanism where histones change their shape, then influencing Themorereceptorsfor the GR , Shape of adjacent DNA. you sa ↳ can & or ↓ gene expression ↳ Histones - a protein that DNA is coiled around MethylationblocksFromgettin s o ↳ phosphorylation I Acetylation L Methylation ↳ opening regulate chromatin Histone deacetylase (HDAC) ↳ removes Ac from histone Histone Acetyltransferase (HAT) ↳ promotes gene expression ↳ adds Ac to histone Acetyl Group ↳ causes chromatin to open.4 2 Development Epigenetic of Behavioral > rules - out "nurture" 2 4 / Selective "Maze Bright" "Maze Dull".. breeding of and Rats explanation Tryon (1934) e proving that intelligence is hereditary 1. training heterogeneous lab rats to complete a maze with a reward 2 Bred the Maze Rats. males and females that least frequently entered incorrect pathways = Bright. Bred the 3 males and females that most frequently entered incorrect pathways = Maze Dull Rats 4. Those offspring were then assessed in the same maze Selective MB Breeding & and MD were bred over 21 generations Results Gen 8 by e no overlap in maze learning performance blw MD and MB ↳ MB consistently performed better than MD Cross Fostering Control eTrycrompings Conclusion e performance in maze learning are due to genetics Searle (1949) e tested MD and MB rats on 30 behavioral tests Key Findings e MB rats were not smar ter : MB rats had less Stress/anxiety ↳ sex differences ↳ Habituation Cooper