Nervous System Overview PDF

Nervous System Overview Question Answer What are the two important parts of the human nervous system? The two important parts of the human nervous system are the Peripheral Nervous Sy...

Nervous System Overview Question Answer What are the two important parts of the human nervous system? The two important parts of the human nervous system are the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) and the Central Nervous System (CNS). What is the primary function of the human nervous system? The human nervous system is responsible for all human behaviours. What does the peripheral nervous system control? The peripheral nervous system controls volitional somatic nervous system and nonvolitional autonomic nervous system behaviours using cranial and spinal nerves. What are the two divisions of the peripheral nervous system? The two divisions of the peripheral nervous system are the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. What is the role of efferent neurons? Efferent neurons carry information from the Central Nervous System (CNS) to the muscles. What is the role of afferent neurons? Afferent neurons carry sensory information to the Central Nervous System (CNS). What are the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system? The two divisions of the autonomic nervous system are the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. What does the sympathetic nervous system do? The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for stress- related activities, initiating the fight-or-flight response. What is the function of the parasympathetic nervous system? The parasympathetic nervous system is associated with returning the body to routine operations and maintaining homeostasis. What are the main components of the central nervous system The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain, the (CNS)? brainstem, and the spinal cord. What is the function of the CNS? The CNS synthesizes information and regulates everything from organ function to purposeful body movement. What is the role of the brain in the nervous system? The brain is the headquarters of the entire nervous system where activities such as sensation, perception, thinking, awareness, emotions, and planning take place. What structures are involved in the limbic system? The limbic system includes the hippocampus, amygdala, thalamus, insula cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and prefrontal cortex. What is the function of the cerebellum? The cerebellum coordinates actions without the need for any conscious awareness. What does the cerebrum include? The cerebrum includes the cerebral cortex, which is regarded as the most advanced portion of the brain. What is the function of the frontal lobe? The frontal lobe controls cognitive functions such as processing information related to language, memory, decision making, and problem solving. What is the primary role of the parietal lobe? The parietal lobe is responsible for receiving inputs from the skin and muscles. What does the occipital lobe contain? The occipital lobe contains the primary visual cortex responsible for vision. What is the function of the temporal lobe? The temporal lobe contains regions for auditory (hearing) and olfactory (smell) sensations. What is an action potential? An action potential is an all-or-nothing event that occurs when there is a change in the charge or potential of the cell from its resting membrane potential. Question Answer What is required to initiate an action potential? To initiate an action potential, a neuron must reach the threshold of excitation. What are the two types of potentials that can occur in a neuron? The two types of potentials are excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) and inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP). What is an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)? An excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) is a depolarising current that causes the membrane potential to become more positive and closer to the threshold of excitation. What is an inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)? An inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) is a hyperpolarising current that causes the membrane potential to become more negative and further away from the threshold of excitation. What happens when two inputs, such as an EPSP and an IPSP, If two inputs were opposing one another, moving the potential in are opposing one another? opposite directions, such as an EPSP and an IPSP, their sum would cancel each other out. What occurs when a neuron has two EPSPs? If a neuron has two EPSPs, then they sum together and become a larger depolarisation. What occurs when two IPSPs happen at the same time? If two IPSPs occur at the same time, they will become a larger hyperpolarisation in membrane potential. What is the refractory period? The refractory period is a time during which a neuron is incapable of firing repeating an action potential because the excitable membrane has to be ready to respond to a second stimulus once it returns to a resting state. What are the two subsets of the refractory period? The two subsets are: i) absolute refractory period (ARP) and ii) relative refractory period (RRP). What occurs during the absolute refractory period (ARP)? During the absolute refractory period (ARP), the neuron is unable to send a new impulse because sodium channels preceding this impulse are inactive and cannot be stimulated no matter how strong the stimulus is. What happens during the relative refractory period (RRP)? The relative refractory period (RRP) occurs when the neuron is able to respond to a stimulus but needs a stronger than normal stimulus in order to fire an action potential. What is the synaptic cleft? The synaptic cleft is a small space between adjacent neurons that helps nerve impulses to pass from one neuron to another. What is a neurotransmitter? A neurotransmitter is a chemical that relays signals across the synapses between neurons. What happens when an action potential reaches the end of the The action potential signals the terminal buttons to release axon? neurotransmitters into the synapse. What is the role of dendrites in a neuron? Dendrites extend away from the cell body and are the main input to the neuron. What happens when neurotransmitters bind to receptors on When neurotransmitters are accepted by the receptors on the receiving neurons? receiving neurons, their effect may be either excitatory (making the cell more likely to fire) or inhibitory (making the cell less likely to fire). What is the action potential? The action potential is a change in electrical charge that occurs in a neuron when a nerve impulse is transmitted. What occurs during the transmission of an action potential along The action potential moves down the axon from segment to the axon? segment, in a set of small jumps from node to node, as each new segment becomes positive. What is the all-or-nothing principle of action potentials? The action potential operates in an all-or-nothing manner, meaning the neuron can provide more energy to the neurons down the line by firing faster, but not by firing more strongly. Question Answer What are neurotransmitters involved in? Neurotransmitters regulate appetite, memory, emotions, muscle action, and movement. What is an agonist? An agonist is a drug that has chemical properties similar to a particular neurotransmitter and thus mimics the effects of that neurotransmitter. What is an antagonist? An antagonist is a drug that reduces or inhibits the normal effects of a neurotransmitter. What is the function of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh)? Acetylcholine (ACh) stimulates muscle contractions and regulates memory, sleeping, and dreaming. What are the effects of dopamine? Dopamine is involved in movement, motivation, and emotion, producing feelings of pleasure and being involved in learning. What is the role of endorphins? Endorphins are natural pain relievers related to compounds found in drugs such as opium, morphine, and heroin. What is the effect of low levels of GABA? A lack of GABA can lead to involuntary motor actions, including tremors and seizures, and can produce anxiety. What does serotonin regulate? Serotonin is involved in mood, appetite, sleep, and aggression. What does adrenaline do? Adrenaline increases heart rate, contraction of blood vessels, speeds up metabolism, and releases glucose into the bloodstream. What is the effect of overproduction of adrenaline? An overproduction of adrenaline may cause rapid heartbeat, high blood pressure, excessive sweating, and palpitations. What is the role of the autonomic nervous system? The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary functions of the internal organs and glands. What is the central nervous system? The central nervous system includes the brain, the brainstem, and the spinal cord and performs mainly the information synthesising function. What is the function of the corpus callosum? The corpus callosum connects the left and the right hemispheres of the brain. What causes seasonal depression? Low levels of serotonin are associated with seasonal depression. How do neurotransmitters that are not accepted by receptor sites Neurotransmitters that are not accepted must be removed from get removed from the synapse? the synapse through the breaking down of the neurotransmitters by enzymes and by reuptake, in which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed into the transmitting terminal buttons. What is the limbic system? Part of the brain that consists of highly specialised neural structures that are involved in regulating emotions. What is the function of the myelin sheath? A fatty tissue that insulates the axon of the neuron which is necessary for conducting neural impulses. What is a neuron? A building block in the nervous system that receives and transmits information using both electrical and chemical processes. What is a neurotransmitter? A chemical that relays signal impulses across the synapses among neurons. What is the occipital lobe? The back most posterior part of the brain involved in vision. What is the parasympathetic nervous system? Part of the peripheral nervous system that restores and calms down the physiological responses so as to maintain homeostasis. What is the parietal lobe? The part of the brain involved in bodily sensations and integrating the senses. Question Answer What is the peripheral nervous system? Part of the human nervous system that controls volitional somatic nervous system and nonvolitional autonomic nervous system behaviours using cranial and spinal nerves. What is a refractory period? A time during which a neuron is incapable of firing an impulse. What is relative refractory period? The process whereby a neuron responds only to a very intense stimulation. What is the resting membrane potential? A state in which the interior of the neuron contains a greater number of negatively charged ions than the area outside the cell. What is the retina? A cell layer in the back of the eye containing photoreceptors. What is the soma? The cell body of a neuron that contains the nucleus and genetic information and directs protein synthesis. What is the somatic nervous system? It controls conscious and voluntary activities and serves as a relay of sensory and motor information to and from the central nervous system. What is the spinal cord? A section of the central nervous system that connects the brain and the brainstem to all major nerves in the body. What is the sympathetic nervous system? Part of the peripheral nervous system that is involved in preparing the body for stress-related activities. What is a synapse? A process whereby neurons use electrical and chemical messages to communicate with each other at the synaptic cleft. What is the synaptic gap cleft? The small space between the presynaptic terminal button of one neuron and the postsynaptic dendrite of another adjacent neuron. What is the temporal lobe? The part of the brain involved in auditory and olfactory processing. What are the five senses? The five sensory systems that allow us to explore, understand, and respond to our environment. What is sensation? An awareness resulting from the stimulation of the sensory organs. What is perception? The way sensory information is organised, interpreted, and consciously experienced. What is bottom-up processing? The fact that perceptions are built from sensory input. What is top-down processing? How we interpret sensations is influenced by our available knowledge, experiences, and thoughts. What is an absolute threshold? The minimal amount of stimulation required to detect a stimulus. What is a differential threshold (just noticeable difference, jnd)? Relates to our ability to detect the difference between two stimuli of different intensities. What is sensory adaptation? The process where we stop paying attention to a sensory stimulus that does not change. What is the auditory system? The system that allows us to hear, where sound waves cause vibrations that are transmitted to the auditory nerve. What are the ossicles? Three small bones in the ear: malleus (hammer), incus (anvil), and stapes (stirrup) that help amplify sound. What is the cochlea? A snail-shell-like bone structure in the ear containing auditory hair cells that convert sound into electrical signals. What are olfactory receptor cells? Cells located in the olfactory membrane that detect chemical molecules and send signals to the brain. What is Umami? A taste associated with monosodium glutamate, translating to 'yummy' in Japanese. Question Answer What are taste buds? Groupings of taste receptor cells that transmit information about taste to the brain. What is the somaesthetic system? The system that provides information about touch, pressure, heat, and pain. What is somatosensation? Our ability to sense touch, temperature, and pain by transducing physical stimuli into electrical potentials processed by the brain. What are tactile stimuli and how are they transduced? Tactile stimuli associated with texture are transduced by special receptors in the skin called mechanoreceptors that allow for the conversion of one kind of energy into a form that the brain can understand. What are the four basic sensations that the nerve endings in the The four basic sensations that the nerve endings in the skin skin respond to? respond to are pressure, hot, cold, and pain. Which sensation has its own specialized receptors? The sensation of pressure has its own specialized receptors. What causes the sensation of itchiness? The feeling of itchiness is caused by repeated stimulation of pain receptors. How is the sensation of wetness created? The feeling of wetness is caused by repeated stimulation of cold and pressure receptors. Where does information from tactile stimuli go after being Information from tactile stimuli is sent through the thalamus to the converted by mechanoreceptors? primary somatosensory cortex for further processing. Which areas of the skin are more sensitive, and why? Various areas of the skin, such as lips and fingertips, are more sensitive than others, such as shoulders or ankles, due to a higher concentration of nerve endings. What is proprioception? Proprioception is the ability to sense the position and movement of body parts. How is proprioception accomplished? Proprioception is accomplished by specialized neurons located in the skin, joints, bones, ears, and tendons, which send messages about the compression and contraction of muscles throughout the body. What is the primary sensory system that humans rely on to Human beings rely primarily on vision to understand the world. understand the world? How does light enter the eye? Light enters the eye through the transparent cornea, passing through the pupil at the center of the iris. What role does the lens of the eye play? The lens adjusts to focus the light on the retina, where it appears upside down and backward. What are the two physical dimensions of light waves? The two physical dimensions of light waves are light intensity and light wavelength. What does light intensity refer to? Light intensity refers to how much energy the light contains and determines the brightness of light. What does light wavelength refer to? Light wavelength refers to the distance between the two successive crests or troughs of the light wave. What are the two main kinds of photoreceptors in the retina? The two main kinds of photoreceptors in the retina are rods and cones. What are rods responsible for? Rods are primarily responsible for our ability to see in dim light conditions. What do cones enable us to see? Cones enable us to see colors and fine details in bright light. Where is the highest concentration of cones found? The highest concentration of cones is found in the fovea, the central region of focus. What is agnosia? Agnosia is the inability to perceive visual stimuli. Question Answer What is prosopagnosia? Prosopagnosia is the inability to recognize faces. What are the two pathways involved in visual processing? The two pathways involved in visual processing are the ventral pathway (the what pathway) and the dorsal pathway (the where pathway). What does the trichromatic theory of color vision state? The trichromatic theory of color vision states that all colors in the spectrum can be produced by combining red, green, and blue colors. What does the opponent-process theory assert? The opponent-process theory asserts that color is coded in opponent pairs: black-white, yellow-blue, and green-red. What are negative afterimages? Negative afterimages are the continuation of a visual sensation after the removal of the stimulus. What is depth perception? Depth perception refers to the ability to perceive spatial relationships in three-dimensional space. What is binocular vision? Binocular vision is the ability to perceive three-dimensional objects because of the differences between the images on each retina in the eyes. What is binocular disparity? Binocular disparity is the slightly different view of the world that each eye receives. What are monocular cues? Monocular cues are cues that require the use of one eye only to perceive depth. What is linear perspective? Linear perspective refers to the fact that we perceive depth when we see two parallel lines that seem to converge in an image. What is the difference between sensation and perception? Sensation refers to the process of receiving information from the environment and transmitting it to the brain, while perception is the process of interpreting the information and forming meaningful images of the world. Can perception occur without sight? Yes, perception can still take place through the other sensory systems even if one sensory system, such as sight, is affected. What does perceptual grouping refer to? Perceptual grouping refers to the tendency to group stimuli in a pattern or shape in a way that allows for meaningful interpretation. What is Gestalt psychology? Gestalt psychology is a movement that believes perception involves more than simply combining sensory stimuli and that the brain creates perceptions that are more than the sum of available sensory inputs. What are the principles of perceptual grouping? The principles of perceptual grouping include factors such as similarity, proximity, continuation, and closure. What is wave amplitude? Wave amplitude is the height of a wave as measured from the highest point (peak) to the lowest point (trough) on the wave. What is wavelength? Wavelength refers to the length of a wave from one peak to the next. What is the audible range of sound frequencies? The audible range of sound frequencies is between 20 and 20,000 hertz. What is the relationship between wave amplitude and loudness? Higher amplitudes are associated with louder sounds. What is timbre? Timbre refers to a sound's purity and is affected by the complex interplay of frequency, amplitude, and timing of sound waves. What is the visible spectrum associated with in humans? The visible spectrum in humans is associated with wavelengths that range from 380 to 740 nm. What is the amplitude of light waves associated with? The amplitude of light waves is associated with our experience of brightness or intensity of color. Question Answer What is the absolute threshold? The smallest amount of stimulation needed for detection by a sense. What is an afterimage? The continuation of a visual sensation after the removal of the stimulus. What is agnosia? A loss of the ability to perceive visual stimuli. What does auditory processing refer to? The processing of auditory stimuli, also known as hearing. What is the auditory canal? A tubelike structure running from the outer ear to the middle ear. What are hair cells? The receptors in the cochlea that convert sound into electrical signals. What is binocular disparity? The difference in images processed by the left and right eyes. What is binocular vision? The ability to perceive three-dimensional objects because of the differences between the images on each retina in the eyes. What is bottom-up processing? Refers to building up to perceptual experience from individual pieces of sensory input. What are chemical senses? Part of the sensory system that allows people to process the environmental stimuli of smell and taste. What is the cochlea? A spiral bone-like structure in the inner ear containing auditory hair cells. What are cones? A type of photoreceptors in the eye that enable us to see colors and fine details in bright light. What is a decibel (dB)? A logarithmic unit of measurement of sound intensity. What is depth perception? The ability to perceive spatial relationships in three-dimensional (3D) space. What is the differential threshold? The smallest change in stimulation that a person can detect, also known as just noticeable difference (jnd). What is the dorsal pathway? The 'where' pathway of visual processing. What does frequency refer to? The number of waves that pass a given point in a given period. What is gustation? The detection of taste by chemoreceptors in the oral cavity, predominantly on the tongue. What is light intensity? Refers to how much energy the light contains and it determines the brightness of the light. What is light wavelength? The distance between the two successive crests or troughs of the light wave. What are mechanoreceptors? Receptors in the skin that allow for the conversion of one kind of energy into a form that the brain can understand. What is olfaction? The ability to process smell stimuli. Where are olfactory receptor cells found? In a mucous membrane at the top of the nose, topped with tentacle-like protrusions that contain receptor proteins. What is opponent-process theory? A theory proposing that color vision is influenced by cells responsive to pairs of colors. What are ossicles? A collection of three small bones in the middle ear that vibrate against the tympanic membrane. What does perception refer to? The way sensory information is organized, interpreted, and consciously experienced. What is perceptual grouping? The tendency to group stimuli in a pattern or shape that allows for meaningful interpretation. Question Answer What are photoreceptors? Specialized cells in the retina that convert light into electrical signals. What is the pinna? The outermost portion of the ear. What is the primary auditory cortex? An area of the cortex involved in processing auditory stimuli. What is the primary somatosensory cortex? An area of the cortex involved in processing somatosensory stimuli. What is the primary visual cortex? An area of the cortex involved in processing visual stimuli. What is prosopagnosia? An inability to recognize faces. What is proprioception? The ability to sense the position and movement of body parts. What is the retina? A cell layer in the back of the eye containing photoreceptors. What are rods? A type of photoreceptors that are primarily responsible for our ability to see in dim light conditions. What is sensation? The physical processing of environmental stimuli by the sense organs. What is sensory adaptation? A reduction in sensitivity to a stimulus after constant exposure to it. What is signal detection? The process at which stimulus signal can be detected at any particular intensity by the sense organs. What is somatosensation? An ability to sense touch, pain, and temperature. What are sound waves? Pressure caused by the vibration of sound in a medium that transfers energy, like air. What are tactile stimuli? Stimuli associated with texture. What is timbre? The purity of sound, affected by frequency, amplitude, and timing of sound waves. What is top-down processing? The perceptions that begin with the most general and move toward the more specific. What is trichromatic theory? A theory proposing that color vision is influenced by different cones responding preferentially to red, green, and blue colors. What is the tympanic membrane? Eardrum; a thin, stretched membrane in the ear that vibrates in response to sound waves. What is the ventral pathway? The 'what' pathway of visual processing. What is the vestibular system? Parts of the inner ear involved in balance. What is wave amplitude? The height of a wave as measured from the highest point (peak) to the lowest point (trough) on the wave. What does wavelength refer to? The length of a wave from one peak to the next. What is intelligence? Typically refers to intellectual ability. How did Weschler define intelligence? As the global capacity to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with the environment. What is creativity? The ability to think about something in novel and unusual ways and to come up with conventional solutions to problems. What did Alfred Binet contribute to psychology? He created a test for children's intellectual capacity. What is the Stanford-Binet intelligence test? An intelligence test adapted by Lewis Terman from the Binet- Simon test, standardized on a large sample of children. What is the 'nature vs nurture' debate? Refers to the contributions of heredity (genes) and environment to intelligence. Question Answer What is heritability? The variance in the population that can be attributed to genetics. What is the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)? An improved measure of intelligence developed by David Wechsler that assesses a wide range of intellectual abilities. What correlation exists between intelligence and brain volume? Standard measures of intelligence positively correlate with overall brain volume. How does genetic similarity relate to intelligence? There is a moderate similarity in intelligence of parents and their biological children, or between siblings. What do twin studies suggest about intelligence? Monozygotic (identical) twins raised together are more similar in intelligence than dizygotic (fraternal) twins raised together. What is the role of genetics in intelligence according to the text? Genetics plays an important role in intelligence, as adopted children are more similar in intelligence to their biological parents than to their adoptive parents. This suggests that heredity is more significant than the environment in influencing intelligence. What findings did studies on adopted children reveal about the One study established that the educational levels attained by relationship between biological parents' educational levels and biological parents were better predictors of adopted children's IQ adopted children's IQ scores? scores than were the IQs of adoptive parents. According to the text, what is the impact of environmental Environmental influences and opportunities contribute to influences on intelligence? intelligence alongside genetic endowment. For example, children raised in stimulating environments tend to have higher IQ scores. What was the outcome of the study on children raised by the The study found that children raised by the same mother same mother, regardless of genetic relation? resemble her IQ to the same degree, irrespective of whether or not they share her genes. What significant change in IQ was observed in children who were Children who were adopted from an orphanage by parents who adopted from an orphanage? provided love, a family, and a stimulating environment showed an increase of 29 IQ points, while those left in the orphanage dropped an average of 26 IQ points. How does socioeconomic status affect the intellectual Middle-income professional parents are more likely to engage in environment provided to children? conversations with their children, leading to higher IQs compared to children from low-income families, who may struggle to provide an intellectually stimulating environment. What does the Flynn effect refer to? The Flynn effect refers to the observation that scores on intelligence tests worldwide have increased substantially over the past few decades, with an average increase of about 3 IQ points every 10 years. According to Cattell, what are the two facets of intelligence that Cattell identified two facets of intelligence: crystallised make up the general g factor? intelligence, which requires specific learned knowledge, and fluid intelligence, which is the ability to think logically without needing previously learned knowledge. What is the difference between crystallised intelligence and fluid Crystallised intelligence involves knowledge and skills gained intelligence? through experience and remains stable throughout adulthood, while fluid intelligence involves the ability to think logically and peaks in young adulthood before gradually declining. What is social intelligence? Social intelligence refers to a person's ability to understand and manage interpersonal relationships. What does emotional intelligence involve? Emotional intelligence involves the ability to monitor one's own emotions and the emotions of others, discriminate among them, and use this information to guide thinking and actions. Who developed the general g factor theory of intelligence? Charles Spearman developed the general g factor theory of intelligence. Question Answer What is the significance of Spearman's factor analysis in Spearman's factor analysis is a statistical technique used to understanding intelligence? represent correlations between intelligence tests in terms of a smaller number of variables known as factors, suggesting that a general cognitive ability underlies multiple specific skills. What does the term 'IQ' stand for, and how is it calculated? IQ stands for Intelligence Quotient. It is calculated by dividing a person's mental age by their chronological age and multiplying by 100. What was the average IQ of a 10-year-old child who performs as The average IQ of a 10-year-old child who performs as well as well as the average for their age according to the text? the average for their age would be 100. What are culture-fair tests designed to do? Culture-fair tests are designed to minimize the influence of a person's cultural background, verbal skills, and educational level, aiming to assess intelligence without bias. How do cultural differences affect the perception of intelligence? Cultures define intelligence differently; for example, European Americans often equate intelligence with reasoning skills, while many African cultures view responsible participation in social life as integral to intelligence. What implications does the text suggest about children from Growing up with advantages does not guarantee success; wealthy vs. disadvantaged backgrounds regarding motivation and wealthy children may take opportunities for granted, while success? disadvantaged children may show greater motivation and achieve success. What did Spearman claim about test scores? Spearman claimed that people's scores on a particular test depend on both the general (g) and specific (s) factors. What are group factors in the context of Spearman's theory? Group factors are other factors that were revealed through further examination of test scores that could not be explained by either the g or s factors. What is Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence? Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence emphasizes three components of intelligence that characterize the way people process information: analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence. What does analytical intelligence consist of? Analytical intelligence consists of basic units of information processing ability, including acquiring or storing information, retrieving information, translating thoughts into performance, abstract reasoning, evaluation, and judgment. How is analytical intelligence related to IQ tests? Analytical intelligence is the type of intelligence mostly measured by conventional IQ tests and is important in school and academic environments. Define creative intelligence according to Sternberg. Creative intelligence is the ability to process novel information and generate new ideas. What are the characteristics of creative people in terms of Creative people have the ability to solve new problems quickly problem-solving? and learn to solve familiar problems in a rote way, allowing their minds to handle other problems that require insight and creativity. What is practical intelligence? Practical intelligence links everyday problem-solving abilities at home and at work, exemplified by a 'street-smart' person who can navigate the world effectively despite having a low IQ score. What is Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences? Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences is based on the idea that individuals process information through different, relatively independent channels and identified eight types of intelligences. Question Answer List the eight types of intelligences according to Gardner. 1. Verbal-linguistic: Ability to speak and write well. 2. Logical-mathematical: Ability to use logic and mathematical skills to solve problems. 3. Visual-spatial: Ability to think and reason about objects in three dimensions. 4. Musical-rhythmic: Ability to perform and enjoy music. 5. Bodily-kinesthetic: Ability to move the body in sports, dance, or other physical activities. 6. Interpersonal: Ability to understand and interact effectively with others. 7. Intrapersonal: Ability to have insight into the self. 8. Naturalistic: Ability to recognize, identify, and understand animals, plants, and other living things. What did Gardner believe about brain damage and intelligences? Gardner believed that each of these intelligences can be destroyed by brain damage and that each involves unique cognitive skills. What criticism is often directed towards Gardner's theory of Critics argue that Gardner may have left out many other valuable multiple intelligences? skills and that categorizing musical skill as a type of intelligence is off base, as exemplified by the absence of domains for chess intelligence or soccer intelligence. What are Thurston's primary mental abilities as proposed in his Thurston recognized seven primary mental abilities: Verbal theory? comprehension, General reasoning, Word fluency, Memory, Number ability, Spatial ability, and Perceptual speed. How did Thurston view the relationship between his factors and Thurston initially viewed the factors as independent but later the general factor (g)? acknowledged that the factors were related to the general or g factor. Describe Carroll's model of intelligence. Carroll divided intelligence into three levels: stratum III (general intelligence factor g), stratum II (less specific categories such as fluid intelligence and visual perception), and stratum I (very specific components such as visual memory). What is creativity according to Santrock? Creativity is the ability to think about something in novel and unusual ways and to come up with conventional solutions to problems. What are the five components important for creative work 1. Expertise: Creative people have studied and learned about a identified in studies of creativity? topic. 2. Imaginative thinking: They view problems in new and different ways. 3. Risk-taking: They take on new but potentially risky approaches. 4. Intrinsic interest: They are motivated by interest, not money. 5. Working in creative environments: They are supported and challenged by peers. What are the five stages of creative thought according to Coon 1. Orientation: Define the problem and its important dimensions. and Mitterer? 2. Preparation: Saturate with information about the problem. 3. Incubation: A period where solutions seem futile but continue subconsciously. 4. Illumination: Aha moments when pieces of the problem fit together. 5. Verification: Test and critically evaluate the solution. What characteristics do creative thinkers tend to have according Creative thinkers tend to have flexibility and playful thinking, inner to Perkins? motivation, risk-taking, and objective evaluation of their work. What is the Flynn effect? The Flynn effect refers to the observation that scores on intelligence tests worldwide have increased substantially over the past few decades. Define reliability in the context of intelligence tests. Reliability is the extent to which a test yields a consistent, reproducible measure of performance. Question Answer What is convergent thinking? Convergent thinking is the ability to provide conventional, correct, or well-established answers or solutions to problems. What is divergent thinking? Divergent thinking is the ability to produce unusual and unconventional thoughts or solutions to problems, often described as thinking outside the box. What does intelligence refer to? Intelligence refers to a person's ability to understand and manage interpersonal relationships. What is standardisation in the context of intelligence testing? Standardisation is the process of testing a large number of people at different ages and computing the average score on the test at each age level. What is Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences? Gardner's theory proposes that each person possesses at least eight types of intelligence. What does the triarchic theory of intelligence describe? Sternberg's theory describes intelligence as having analytic, creative, and practical dimensions of intelligence. What is validity in the context of psychological testing? Validity is the extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure. What is the Five-factor model of personality also known as? The Five-factor model of personality is also known as the Big Five. What does the acronym OCEAN stand for in the Five-factor OCEAN stands for Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, model? Agreeableness, and Neuroticism. What characterizes a person who scores high in Openness A person who scores high in Openness is curious, imaginative, according to the Big Five personality traits? untraditional, and enjoys seeing people with new types of haircuts and body piercings. What characterizes a person who scores low in A person who scores low in Conscientiousness prefers spur-of- Conscientiousness according to the Big Five personality traits? the-moment action to planning, is unreliable, hedonistic, careless, and lax. What is the significance of consistency in personality traits? To have a personality trait, individuals must be somewhat consistent across situations in their behaviors related to the trait. What is the significance of stability in personality traits? Individuals with personality traits tend to exhibit stable behaviors over time and in various situations. What does the HEXACO model of traits add to the Big Five? The HEXACO model adds honesty-humility as a sixth dimension of personality. How does the Big Five model predict behavior? The Big Five dimensions accurately predict behaviors; for instance, a pattern of high conscientiousness, low neuroticism, and high agreeableness predicts successful job performance. What does personality refer to? Personality refers to the longstanding traits and patterns that propel individuals to consistently think, feel, and behave in specific ways. What is a major critique of the Five-factor model of personality? Some theorists argue that there are other traits that cannot be fully captured by the model and that individual behavior may vary across different situations. What does research suggest about the cross-cultural applicability The Big Five dimensions seem to be cross-cultural, as the same of the Big Five dimensions? five factors have been identified in participants from many countries. How are personality traits typically measured? Personality traits are typically measured on a continuous distribution, where traits can range from low to high, with intermediate values possible. What do critics of the trait concept argue? Critics of the trait concept argue that people do not act consistently from one situation to the next and that situational forces heavily influence behavior. Question Answer Who is associated with the statement that an understanding of Allport (1937) maintained that understanding differences between personality traits is essential for understanding individual individuals is best achieved by understanding their personality differences? traits. What are the three criteria that characterize personality traits? The three criteria are consistency, stability, and distinctiveness. What does the term 'idiosyncratic pattern' refer to in the context Idiosyncratic pattern refers to the unique pattern of enduring, of personality? long-term characteristics and the manner in which an individual interacts with others and their environment. What is the historical origin of the word 'personality'? The word personality comes from the Latin word 'persona', which referred to a mask worn by an actor in ancient times. How does the Five-factor model simplify personality traits? The Five-factor model simplifies personality traits by capturing them as only five dimensions, making it easier to understand. What relationship exists between conscientiousness and job A pattern of high conscientiousness is associated with successful performance according to research? job performance. What is the emotional intelligence? Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to recognize, understand, and manage our own emotions and the emotions of others. What are traits and how do they relate to individual differences? Traits are somewhat stable over time in behaviors related to the trait. For example, if a person is talkative at a younger age, they will also tend to be talkative at a later age. Individual differences indicate that some people have higher levels of a certain trait than others. What are the theoretical perspectives on personality? Theoretical perspectives on personality represent more than simple curiosity about human behavior; they influence views of normal and abnormal behavior. This section explores common theoretical perspectives. Who was Sigmund Freud and what was his contribution to Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was the first person to psychology? systematically study the workings of the unconscious mind and developed psychoanalysis, a psychological theory that focuses on how early childhood affects adult behavior through unconscious processes. How did Freud compare the mind to an iceberg? Freud compared the mind to an iceberg, suggesting that people are only aware of a small amount of their mind's activities, while most remains hidden in the unconscious mind. This unconscious information affects behavior without individuals' awareness. What are Freud's three personality structures? Freud proposed three personality structures: the id, the ego, and the superego. The id seeks instant gratification, the ego negotiates and finds socially acceptable ways to satisfy the id's desires, and the superego governs moral standards. What is the role of the id in Freud's theory? The id is the primitive part of the self that operates according to the pleasure principle, containing raw biological urges like eating and sex. Its goal is to pursue pleasure and satisfy the drives for sex and aggression immediately. What is the function of the ego according to Freud? The ego, or self, is the conscious, rational decision-making component of personality that operates according to the reality principle. Its goal is to negotiate ways to satisfy the id's desires in socially acceptable ways. What does the superego represent in Freud's personality theory? The superego is the moral component of personality that incorporates social standards of what is right or wrong. It aims to apply societal moral values to fulfill one's desires. What happens when there is a conflict between the id and the The id seeks instant gratification, while the superego demands superego? socially acceptable behavior. The ego's job is to find a middle ground to satisfy both, and failure to achieve this balance may result in neurosis or anxiety disorders. Question Answer What are defense mechanisms in Freud's theory? Defense mechanisms are unconscious protective behaviors that individuals engage in to deal with negative feelings and reduce anxiety. What are Freud's psychosexual stages of development? Freud believed that human development occurs in five psychosexual stages: Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, and Genital. Each stage involves conflicts that, when managed properly, shape personality. What is fixation in Freud's psychosexual stages? Fixation refers to a failure to progress appropriately through a psychosexual stage, resulting from either excessive gratification or frustration of needs at that stage. Fixation can affect adult personality. What happens during the Oral stage of development according to The Oral stage occurs from birth to 1 year, where the mouth is Freud? the center of pleasure. Fixation at this stage can lead to behaviors like overeating or smoking and personality traits like dependency and envy. What characterizes the Anal stage of development? The Anal stage occurs from 2 to 3 years, where pleasure centers around toilet training. Conflict arises between the child's desire to expel feces and parental control. Difficulties may lead to a rigid personality centered on control. What is the Phallic stage and what complexities arise during it? The Phallic stage occurs from 3 to 6 years, where children discover pleasure in their genitalia. Complexes arise, such as the Oedipus complex in boys and the Electra complex in girls, leading to feelings of hostility and affection towards parents. What occurs during the Latency stage? The Latency stage lasts from 6 years to puberty. During this time, children's sexuality is suppressed as they focus on developing social, intellectual, and creative skills. Describe the Genital stage of Freud's psychosexual development. The Genital stage, from puberty onward, is characterized by the reemergence of sexual urges and the focus on establishing mature relationships, influenced by how earlier psychosexual conflicts were resolved. What is the Neo-Freudian perspective on personality? The Neo-Freudians, while based on Freudian principles, place less emphasis on sexuality as the primary motivation and are more optimistic about personality growth and change in adulthood. What did Alfred Adler propose about human motivation? Alfred Adler proposed that the primary motivation in human personality is striving for superiority, where individuals seek to become better through unique accomplishments. What is an inferiority complex according to Adler? An inferiority complex is a psychological state where individuals feel they are not living up to expectations, often stemming from being overly nurtured or neglected during childhood. What did Carl Jung contribute to the understanding of Carl Jung introduced the concept of the collective unconscious, a personality? collection of shared ancestral memories, and emphasized self- realization as a motivating factor for personality. What is the behavioral perspective on personality? Behaviorism posits that personality is shaped by external reinforcements and consequences, with consistent behavior patterns developed through interaction with the environment. How did B.F. Skinner view personality development? B.F. Skinner argued that personality develops throughout a person's lifetime, opposing Freud's belief that it is fixed in childhood, and that behavior can change with new experiences. What is Bandura's social cognitive theory of personality? Bandura's social cognitive theory emphasizes the interaction of cognitive factors, behavior, and context in shaping personality, incorporating concepts like reciprocal determinism and observational learning. Question Answer What is self-efficacy? Self-efficacy is our level of confidence in our own abilities to influence situations, which plays an important role in personality development. What is reciprocal determinism? Reciprocal determinism is the concept that behavior, cognitive processes, and situational context all influence each other. What was Bandura's key contribution to psychology? Bandura's key contribution was the idea that much learning takes place through observation, known as observational learning. What is observational learning? Observational learning is the process by which people learn what behaviors are rewarded and punished in our cultures. How does self-efficacy affect people's approach to challenges People with high self-efficacy believe their goals are within reach, and goals? view challenges positively, and see them as tasks to be mastered. Conversely, those with low self-efficacy avoid challenging tasks due to doubt in their abilities. What can influence feelings of self-efficacy? Feelings of self-efficacy can be specific to certain situations; for example, a student may feel confident in English but not in math. What does humanism react against? Humanism reacts against the pessimistic determinism of psychoanalysis and the behavioristic view of humans as passively reacting to the environment. What is the basic tenet of humanism in psychology? The basic tenet of humanism is that people are free to make choices to realize their own potential. What did Abraham Maslow study? Abraham Maslow studied people whom he considered to be healthy, creative, and productive, such as Albert Einstein and Eleanor Roosevelt. What are some characteristics shared by the individuals studied Shared characteristics include openness, creativeness, by Maslow? spontaneity, concern for others, and self-acceptance. What is Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory? Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory posits that the highest need is self-actualization, the achievement of one's fullest potential. How does Carl Rogers define personality? Carl Rogers regarded personality as shaped by our self-concept, thoughts, and feelings about ourselves. What is congruence according to Rogers? Congruence is a state of being that occurs when a person's ideal self is in harmony with their actual behavior. What is the impact of high congruence on an individual? High congruence leads to a greater sense of self-worth and a healthy, productive life. What is unconditional positive regard according to Rogers? Unconditional positive regard is the acceptance and valuing of a person, which helps them develop a caring attitude towards themselves. What is incongruence? Incongruence is a state of being when there is a great discrepancy between a person's ideal self and their actual behavior. What do both Rogers and Maslow's theories emphasize? Both theories emphasize free will and self-determination, with individuals desiring to become the best person they can be. What do psychologists favoring the biological approach believe? They believe that inherited predispositions and physiological processes account for differences in personalities. What is the Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart? It is a well-known study of the genetic basis for personality that examined 350 pairs of twins, both identical and fraternal, reared together and apart. What does heritability refer to? Heritability refers to the proportion of differences among people that is attributed to genetics. What aspects of personality do cultural factors shape? Culture, which includes beliefs, customs, and traditions, is a critical environmental factor that shapes personality. Question Answer What is the impact of culture on personality traits? There are both universal and culture-specific aspects that account for variations in personalities across different cultures. What are the differences between collectivistic and individualistic Collectivistic cultures emphasize social harmony and group cultures? needs, while individualistic cultures value independence and personal achievement. What does the African perspective on personality emphasize? The African perspective emphasizes collectivism and interdependence, where the individual is understood within the context of the collective. What is the proverb that summarizes the African perspective on Umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu, which means a person is a person personality? through other persons. What do self-report inventories typically use? Self-report inventories typically use multiple-choice items or numbered scales, often called Likert scales. What is one of the most widely used personality inventories? The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), which consists of true/false questions. What is the purpose of projective tests? Projective tests rely on the defense mechanism of projection to assess unconscious processes and reveal feelings and impulses. What is the Rorschach Inkblot Test? It is a projective test consisting of symmetrical inkblot cards that assess a person's unconscious feelings and struggles. What is the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)? The TAT is a projective test where the testee tells a story about ambiguous pictures, providing insight into their social world. Why is it important to develop culturally specific personality To address the limitations of traditional projective tests in assessments? assessing diverse ethnic-cultural groups and reflect their everyday life experiences. What does the CTCB contain? The CTCB contains 20 colour images that show scenes of African American lifestyles. What were the findings when the CTCB was compared with the It was found that the use of the CTCB led to increased story TAT for African Americans? length, higher degrees of positive feelings, and stronger identification with the CTCB. What is the essence of personality according to the text? Personality forms the essence of our being. What theoretical perspectives on personality does the text The text introduces various western theoretical perspectives, introduce? including the African perspective. How is personality defined in terms of individual differences? Personality is what makes us different from each other, primarily because of the personality traits displayed over time. What is the purpose of the discussion forum on myUnisa? Students are required to provide their argument on the use of personality tests in the African context. Define agreeableness as a personality trait. Agreeableness is a personality trait that reflects a person's tendency to be compassionate, cooperative, warm, and caring for others. What are archetypes in the context of personality? Archetypes are the cross-culturally universal symbols that explain the similarities among people in their emotional reactions to many stimuli. What does behaviourism assert about human and animal Behaviourism is the theory that asserts that human and animal behaviour? behaviour can be explained in terms of conditioning, without the involvement of mental processes. Define the term 'complex' as used in personality theory. Complex refers to the process whereby children manifest sexual desires for the opposite-sex parent, accompanied by feelings of hostility towards the same-sex parent. What is congruence in terms of personality? Congruence is a state of being that occurs when a person's ideal self is in harmony with their actual behaviour. Question Answer What does conscientiousness reflect in a person? Conscientiousness reflects a person's tendency to be careful, organised, hardworking, and to follow rules. What does consistency refer to in the context of personality? Consistency refers to similar behaviour in similar situations and/ or similar behaviour over time. What is a continuous distribution? A continuous distribution is one in which values can occur anywhere along an unbroken continuum. Define culture as per the text. Culture refers to the distinctive customs, values, beliefs, knowledge, art, and language of a society or community. What are defence mechanisms in psychology? Defence mechanisms are the unconscious psychological operations that function to protect a person from anxiety- producing thoughts and feelings related to internal conflicts and outer stressors. What is the ego in personality psychology? The ego is a part of personality which is experienced as the self and is in contact with the external world through perception. What does extraversion as a personality trait indicate? Extraversion reflects a person's tendency to be sociable, outgoing, active, and assertive. What is the Five-Factor Model also known as? The Five-Factor Model is also known as the Big Five. What are the five dimensions of the Five-Factor Model? The five dimensions are OCEAN: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. What does fixation mean in personality development? Fixation refers to a failure to move forward from one stage of development to another in an appropriate manner. What is heritability in the context of personality? Heritability is the extent to which genetic differences contribute to individual differences in observable behaviour. What does the HEXACO model include in addition to the Big Five The HEXACO model includes the sixth trait of honesty-humility. traits? What is humanism in psychology? Humanism is a philosophy that stresses the idea that people have an ethical responsibility to live personally fulfilling lives and contribute to the greater good for all people. Define the id in personality theory. The id is the personality component made up of unconscious psychic energy that works to satisfy basic urges, needs, and desires. What is an ideal self? An ideal self is a mental representation of an exemplary set of psychological attributes that one strives or wishes to possess. What is incongruence in personality? Incongruence is a state of being when a person's ideal self is in disagreement with their actual behaviour. What are individual differences in psychology? Individual differences refer to the extent and type of distinctions among individuals on some of the significant psychological traits. What is an inferiority complex? An inferiority complex is a basic feeling of inadequacy and insecurity, deriving from actual or imagined physical or psychological deficiency. What does the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory The MMPI is a standardized psychometric test of adult (MMPI) measure? personality and psychopathology. Who are Neo-Freudians? Neo-Freudians are thinkers who agreed with many of the fundamental tenets of Freud's psychoanalytic theory but changed and adapted the approach to incorporate their own beliefs, ideas, and opinions. What is neurosis? Neurosis is a tendency to experience negative emotions, anxiety disorders, or unhealthy behaviours. Question Answer What does neuroticism reflect in an individual? Neuroticism reflects the tendency to be interpersonally sensitive and to experience negative emotions such as anxiety, fear, sadness, and anger. What is observational learning? Observational learning is the process of learning by watching others, retaining the information, and later replicating the behaviours observed. What is penis envy in psychological terms? Penis envy is the process whereby a girl child feels hostility towards her mother and blames her for the lack of a penis. Define personality in psychology. Personality refers to individual differences in characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving. What is a personality assessment/test? A personality assessment/test refers to techniques designed to measure the characteristic patterns of traits that people exhibit across various situations. What do personality traits reflect? Personality traits reflect people's characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviours. What is the pleasure principle? The pleasure principle is the driving force of the id that seeks immediate gratification of all needs, wants, and urges. What are projective tests? Projective tests are sets of ambiguous stimuli to assess personality, where the individual responds with their first thought or series of thoughts or tells a story abou