Nervous System Notes PDF

Nervous System  LESSON 6 : NERVOUS SYSTEM ANAPHYSIO MIDTERMS | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025 | PROF. EDWIN MIRAFLOR | MS. ROSALIE MALIJAN...

Nervous System  LESSON 6 : NERVOUS SYSTEM ANAPHYSIO MIDTERMS | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025 | PROF. EDWIN MIRAFLOR | MS. ROSALIE MALIJAN Bipolar: NERVOUS SYSTEM ○ One axon and one dendrite (found in the eyes, nose, ears). Multipolar: FUNCTIONS ○ Multiple dendrites and one axon (common in motor neurons). Responsible for rapid communication using electrical and chemical signals. Coordinates activities like sensory input, integration, and SUPPORT NEURONS motor output. Helps maintain homeostasis and mental activities (consciousness, memory, emotions). NEUROLOGICAL CELLS NEURON Astrocytes: ○ Support neurons in the brain/spinal cord, maintain the blood-brain barrier. ANATOMY Microglia: ○ Remove waste and dead neurons. Neuron: Ependymal Cells: ○ Basic unit of the nervous system. ○ Line brain ventricles, produce and circulate CSF. Cell Body: Oligodendrocytes: ○ Contains the nucleus and organelles. ○ Form the myelin sheath around axons in the Dendrites: CNS. ○ Branch-like structures that receive signals. Schwann Cells: Axon: ○ Form the myelin sheath around axons in the ○ Long extension that transmits impulses away PNS. from the cell body. Satellite Cells: Myelin Sheath: ○ Surround neuron cell bodies in the PNS, ○ Speeds up impulse transmission. providing structural support. Nodes of Ranvier: ○ Gaps in the myelin that help accelerate signal NERVOUS TISSUE transmission. GRAY AND WHITE MATTER CLASSIFICATIONS Gray Matter: Sensory (Afferent): ○ Contains neuron cell bodies and dendrites ○ Carries information to the CNS from sensory (where processing happens). receptors. White Matter: Interneurons: ○ Made up of myelinated axons, involved in ○ Connect neurons within the CNS. transmitting signals. Motor (Efferent): ○ Transmits signals from the CNS to muscles or glands. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM STRUCTURE PARTS Unipolar: Includes the brain and spinal cord. ○ Single process extending from the cell body Brain: (found in sensory neurons). ○ Controls all bodily functions, both voluntary and involuntary. ○ ANAPHYSIO: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY MODULE # 6 TOPICS 1 1  LESSON 6 : NERVOUS SYSTEM ANAPHYSIO MIDTERMS | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025 | PROF. EDWIN MIRAFLOR | MS. ROSALIE MALIJAN Hindbrain: AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM ○ Includes the cerebellum (balance/posture), medulla oblongata (vital functions like SYMPATHETIC AND PARASYMPATHETIC breathing), and pons (relays information). Midbrain: ○ Regulates survival functions like heart rate and Sympathetic: connects the brain to the spinal cord. ○ Prepares the body for “fight or flight” during Forebrain: stress (increases heart rate, reduces digestion). ○ Includes the cerebrum (responsible for higher Parasympathetic: cognitive functions like reasoning) and ○ Restores the body to “rest and digest” after diencephalon (relay center and homeostatic stress (slows heart rate, enhances digestion). regulation via the hypothalamus). LABORATORY NOTES SPINAL CORD ADDED NOTES INTRO Autonomic Gray matter (cell bodies) and white matter (myelinated ○ involuntary actions axons). ○ sympathetic Sensory (afferent) tracts carry signals to the brain, and fight/flight response motor (efferent) tracts carry signals from the brain. ○ parasympathetic Reflex Arc: calming effect ○ A direct pathway for quick reactions, where eat,rest,sleep,drink sensory neurons communicate with motor Somatic neurons in response to stimuli (e.g., withdrawal ○ voluntary from pain). ○ Sensory certain action to central nervous PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM system ○ motor interpret brain than action PARTS aqueous humor ○ fluid produce by eye Connects the CNS to the rest of the body. cerebral fissure Cranial nerves: ○ foldings in brain ○ 12 pairs that control facial movements, taste, brocha’s area hearing, and smell. ○ language production Spinal nerves: wernickes ○ 31 pairs that carry information between the ○ comprehension spinal cord and various parts of the body. spinal formula ○ C8 (cranial) PLEXUSES ○ T12 (thoracic) ○ L5 (lumbar) ○ S5 (sacral) INTRO ○ O1 (oxidial) Spinal Nerves Networks of nerves, such as the cervical plexus (neck), ○ 31 pairs brachial plexus (upper limbs), and lumbar plexus (lower Brain and Spinal Cord limbs). ○ consists CNS ANAPHYSIO: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY MODULE # 6 TOPICS 1 2  LESSON 6 : NERVOUS SYSTEM ANAPHYSIO MIDTERMS | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025 | PROF. EDWIN MIRAFLOR | MS. ROSALIE MALIJAN Brain Stem (Inferior) ○ brainstem ○ corpora quadrigemina Connects brain to spinal cord pathway visual and auditory (dorsal ○ hypothalamus MidBrain) body temp ○ cerebral peduncle (crus cerebri) hunger fiber bundles thirst Body coordination (ventral midbrain) sleep ○ pons hormones bridge ○ thalamus ○ medulla oblongata sending signals to appropriate areas of connects brain to spinal cord brain ○ midbrain (mesencephalon) ○ hippocampus relay and transmit info new memories and learning vision, hearing, sleep, pain ○ amygdala neurological cells fear and pleasure ○ support protect nourish neurons ○ corpus callosum ependymal cells connects left and right hemispheres of ○ form cerebrospinal fluid brain Schwann cells cranial nerves ○ Form myelin sheath in 1 axon ○ Olfactory CN I medulla oblongata smell ○ house cardiovascular and respiratory center of ○ Optic CN II brain sight cerebrum ○ Oculomotor CN III ○ controls eyeball movement (Pupil) coordination ○ Trochlear CN IV muscle tone eyeball movement balance ○ Trigeminal CN V equilibrium Sensory hypothalamus face ○ Controls scalp body temp teeth hunger motor thirst chewing muscle emotion ○ Abducens CN VI pleasure movement of eyeball temporal lobe ○ Facial CN VII ○ controls hearing and smelling Sensory frontal lobe taste anterior ⅔ of tongue ○ speech movement Motor cerebellum facial expression ○ coordination ○ Vestibulocochlear CN VIII Parts of the Brain hearing ○ cerebrum balance largest part equilibrium thinking, emotion, process info: vision, ○ Glossopharyngeal CN IX touch, hearing Sensory ○ cerebellum taste posterior ⅓ of tongue balance Motor coordination swallowing movement ANAPHYSIO: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY MODULE # 6 TOPICS 1 3  LESSON 6 : NERVOUS SYSTEM ANAPHYSIO MIDTERMS | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025 | PROF. EDWIN MIRAFLOR | MS. ROSALIE MALIJAN ○ Vagus CN X Sensory and Motor pharynx larynx muscle (swallowing) ○ Spinal Accessory XI contraction of neck and shoulder muscle ○ Hypoglossal XII motor control of extrinsic muscle of tongue ANAPHYSIO: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY MODULE # 6 TOPICS 1 4 Special Senses  LESSON 7: SPECIAL SENSES ANAPHYSIO MIDTERMS | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025 | PROF. EDWIN MIRAFLOR | MS. ROSALIE MALIJAN Position of Body Parts: SPECIAL SENSES ○ Sensed by proprioceptors in muscles, joints, and ligaments. SENSORY FUNCTION SPECIAL SENSES Sensation: Specialized senses with their own organs: ○ Raw input from the peripheral nervous system ○ Smell (Olfaction): to the central nervous system. Detected by chemoreceptors in the Perception: nasal cavity. ○ How the brain interprets these sensations. ○ Taste (Gustation): Types of Sensory Receptors: Detected by chemoreceptors on the ○ Mechanoreceptors: tongue. Respond to physical stimuli like sound ○ Vision: or touch. Detected by photoreceptors in the ○ Thermoreceptors: eyes. Detect temperature changes. ○ Hearing: ○ Pain receptors: Detected by mechanoreceptors in the Detect damage or harmful stimuli. ears. ○ Photoreceptors: ○ Equilibrium (Balance): React to light (important for vision). Managed by mechanoreceptors in the ○ Chemoreceptors: inner ear. Respond to chemical stimuli (used in taste and smell). ○ Proprioceptors: EYE STRUCTURES Monitor body part positions (used in balance and movement). ACCESSORY STRUCTURES TRANSDUCTION AND SENSORY ADAPTATION Eyelids, Eyelashes, Eyebrows: ○ Provide protection from debris. Transduction: Lacrimal Apparatus: ○ Conversion of stimuli into electrical signals ○ Produces tears to clean and lubricate the eye. (action potentials) by sensory receptors. Conjunctiva: Sensory adaptation: ○ Mucous membrane that lines the eyelids and ○ The phenomenon where constant exposure to a covers part of the eye. stimulus causes sensory receptors to fire fewer Extra-ocular Muscles: signals over time (e.g., getting used to a strong ○ Control eye movement, innervated by cranial smell). nerves. GENERAL AND SPECIAL SENSES EYE LAYERS (TUNICS) Fibrous Layer: GENERAL SENSES ○ Sclera: White, tough outer layer for Touch: protection. ○ Detected by mechanoreceptors. ○ Cornea: Temperature: Transparent part that bends light rays. ○ Sensed by thermoreceptors. Vascular Layer: Pain: ○ Choroid: ○ Detected by pain receptors (found all over the Provides nutrients to the eye. body except in the brain). ANAPHYSIO: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY MODULE # 7 TOPICS 2 1  LESSON 7: SPECIAL SENSES ANAPHYSIO MIDTERMS | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025 | PROF. EDWIN MIRAFLOR | MS. ROSALIE MALIJAN ○ Ciliary Body: AIR AND BONE CONDUCTION Adjusts lens thickness to focus light. ○ Iris: Air conduction: Colored part that controls the size of ○ Sound travels through the outer and middle ear. the pupil. Bone conduction: ○ Pupil: ○ Sound vibrations bypass the eardrum and travel Allows light into the eye. directly through the bones to the inner ear. Nervous Layer: ○ Retina: BODY EQUILIBRIUM Contains photoreceptors (rods for low light, cones for color). ○ Macula: BALANCE IS MAINTAINED BY: Provides sharp central vision. ○ Fovea Centralis: Proprioception (muscles and joints). Gives the clearest vision. Vision (eyes). ○ Optic Disk: Vestibular System (ears). Where the optic nerve exits the eye. Cerebellum (coordinates balance signals). EAR STRUCTURES LABORATORY NOTES OUTER EAR SPECIAL SENSES Auricle: Anterior Chamber - ○ Collects sound waves. ○ loc aqueous humor Auditory Canal: Scleral Venous Sinus - ○ Carries sound to the middle ear. ○ drains aqueous humor Ceruminous Gland: Ciliary body - ○ Produces earwax to protect the ear. ○ produce aqueous humor Aqueous humor - MIDDLE EAR ○ fluid in the eye Retina - Tympanic Membrane (Eardrum): ○ has photoreceptor ○ Vibrates with sound. Iris - Ossicles: ○ controls the size of the pupil ○ Small bones that transmit vibrations (malleus, Lens - incus, stapes). ○ changes shape to focus light Eustachian Tube: Sclera - ○ Equalizes pressure in the ear. ○ white tough outer layer eyeball Suspensory Ligaments - INNER EAR ○ attach lens to ciliary body INTERNAL AND MIDDLE EAR FUNCTIONS AND STRUCTURE Cochlea: ○ Detects sound vibrations and converts them into nerve signals. Malleus - Vestibule and Semicircular Canals: ○ auditory ossicle attach to tympanic membrane ○ Detects balance and rotational movement. Auditory tube - ○ equalizes air pressure AUDITORY PATHWAY Middle ear - ○ eardrum heus - ANAPHYSIO: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY MODULE # 7 TOPICS 2 2  LESSON 7: SPECIAL SENSES ANAPHYSIO MIDTERMS | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025 | PROF. EDWIN MIRAFLOR | MS. ROSALIE MALIJAN ○ MIDDLE auditory ossicle External ear structure ○ helix ○ auricle ○ lobulle Small bones of middle ear ○ malleus ○ incus ○ stapes INNER EAR FUNCTIONS Labyrinth ○ inner ear complex structure Cochlea ○ fluid in all labyrinth Cochlear Duct ○ contains hearing receptor Membranous labyrinth component ○ cochlear duct for hearing ○ utricle balance, linear acceleration ○ saccule balance, vertical movements ○ semicircular ducts fluid filled tubes Body Labyrinth ○ cochlea for hearing ○ vestibule contains utricle and saccule ○ Semicircular canal Houses semicircular ducts ANAPHYSIO: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY MODULE # 7 TOPICS 2 3 Endocrine System  LESSON 8 : ENDOCRINE SYSTEM ANAPHYSIO MIDTERMS | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025 | PROF. EDWIN MIRAFLOR | MS. ROSALIE MALIJAN Can pass through cell membranes. THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Bind to internal receptors (e.g., steroid hormones). INTRODUCTION CONTROL OF HORMONE RELEASE Structure: Hormonal stimulus: ○ A network of glands that produce hormones. ○ Triggered by other hormones. Function: Humoral stimulus: ○ Hormones regulate various body processes by ○ Triggered by changes in blood levels of nutrients targeting distant organs via the bloodstream. or ions. Difference from Nervous System Neural stimulus: Nervous: Rapid ○ Activated by nerve fibers. Endocrine: Slow HYPOTHALAMUS KEY FUNCTIONS FUNCTION Metabolism Food intake & digestion control Produces hormones that influence the pituitary gland. Tissue development Ion and water balance regulation KEY HORMONES: Heart rate and blood pressure regulation Reproductive functions Vasopressin (ADH): Immune response ○ Regulates water, blood volume, and blood pressure. ENDOCRINE GLANDS Oxytocin: ○ Affects behavior and reproductive functions. OVERVIEW Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone (GHRH): ○ Promotes growth hormone release. Endocrine glands: Corticotropin Releasing Hormone (CRH): ○ Ductless, release hormones directly into the ○ Stimulates the release of ACTH. blood. Hormones: PITUITARY GLAND ○ Biochemicals that alter the metabolism of target cells. OVERVIEW: Target cells: ○ Cells with receptor proteins responding to Known as the "master gland" for its regulatory role. specific hormones. Located at the base of the Human Brain HORMONES POSTERIOR AND ANTERIOR PITUITARY: WATER-SOLUBLE HORMONES: Posterior Pituitary: (NEUROHYPOPHYSIS) ○ Releases ADH and Oxytocin Cannot pass through the cell membrane. Anterior Pituitary: ( ADENOHYPOPHYSIS) Bind to receptors on cell surfaces (e.g., protein and ○ Growth Hormone (GH): SOMATOTROPIN peptide hormones). Promotes tissue growth and regulates metabolism. LIPID-SOLUBLE HORMONES: Dwarfism lack of GH Gigantism over production of GH ANAPHYSIO: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY MODULE # 8 TOPICS 3 1  LESSON 8 : ENDOCRINE SYSTEM ANAPHYSIO MIDTERMS | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025 | PROF. EDWIN MIRAFLOR | MS. ROSALIE MALIJAN ○ Prolactin: (LACTOGENIC HORMONE) Also called as the Suprarenal Gland Stimulates milk production. ○ TSH: MEDULLA AND CORTEX Stimulates thyroid activity. ○ ACTH: Adrenal Medulla: ○ Produces epinephrine adrenaline (increase Stimulates adrenal gland hormone blood pressure, adrenaline rush) and release. norepinephrine noradrenaline (intensifies the ○ FSH/LH: epinephrine, which control the body's fight or Regulate reproductive processes. flight response. ○ Sympathetic Nervous System Adrenal Cortex: THYROID GLAND ○ Produces corticosteroids, including mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids cortisol OWN UNDERSTANDING: and cortisone controls glucose and protein metabolism and antiinflammatory (for stress response) and aldosterone (for water/salt Regulates: balance). ○ Metabolism ○ Energy Production ○ Body Temperature PANCREAS HORMONES Found just behind the stomach Eyelets of langerhans Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3): PRODUCE: ○ Regulate metabolism and growth. ○ Thyroxine is dependent on the amount of Iodine ○ If lack of iodine causes thyroid enlargement or Insulin: Goiter ○ Lowers blood glucose by promoting its uptake ○ Under secretion of thyroxine in child into cells. development is called cretinism Glucagon: ○ Cretinism is different from Dwarfism because it ○ Raises blood glucose by promoting glycogen shows mental retardation. breakdown in the liver. ○ Over secretion of thyroxine is Graves disease Calcitonin: PINEAL GLAND ○ Lowers blood calcium by promoting bone deposition. RESPONSIBLE FOR: PARATHYROID GLAND Melatonin: ○ Regulates sleep-wake cycles, with levels rising at HORMONES night and falling during the day. Parathyroid Hormone (PTH): THYMUS GLAND ○ Increases calcium levels by stimulating bone resorption and enhancing calcium absorption in RESPONSIBLE FOR: the gut and kidneys. Thymosin: ADRENAL GLANDS ○ Stimulates the development of T-cells for the immune response. Found on top of the kidneys ANAPHYSIO: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY MODULE # 8 TOPICS 3 2  LESSON 8 : ENDOCRINE SYSTEM ANAPHYSIO MIDTERMS | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025 | PROF. EDWIN MIRAFLOR | MS. ROSALIE MALIJAN GONADS Water balance and ADH Pancreas ○ Produces: OVARIES AND TESTES VIP Somatostatin Ovaries: Insulin ○ Progesterone: Regulates the menstrual cycle Lowers and regulates blood and prepares the body for pregnancy. sugar level ○ Estrogen: Maintains female secondary sex Glucagon characteristics and regulates reproductive Raises blood sugar level functions. Ovaries: Testes: ○ testosterone ○ Androgen Testosterone: Promotes sperm ○ AMH(Anti Mullerian Hormone) production and maintains male secondary sex ○ Inhibin I characteristics. ○ Estrogen Secondary Female Sex Characteristics LABORATORY NOTES: ○ Progesterone Regulates Menstrual Cycle ALL THE GLANDS Testes: ○ Testosterone Secondary Male Sex Characteristics Pituitary Gland Sperm Production ○ GH, TSH, ACTH, LM, Prolactin, Melanocytes:Anterior LOCATIONS OF ALL THE GLANDS ○ Master gland ○ Controls all the gland ○ Posterior Pituitary Lobe Thyroid Gland release ADH(vasopressin) ○ In throat connected by isthmus water retention (oxytocin) Adrenal Gland Pineal Gland ○ Top of kidney ○ Provides melatonin Pancreas ○ sleep/wake cycle ○ Mixed Gland in stomach Thyroid Gland Pineal Gland ○ T3, T4, Calcitonin ○ Found in roof of 3rd ventricle of the brain ○ Regulates: Parathyroid Gland Metabolism ○ Horseback of thyroid Energy Production Ovaries Body Temperature ○ Found in pelvic cavity Parathyroid Gland ○ “Inadequate hormones could cause this ○ PTH condition ○ Regulates: (in the blood) Calcium ADDED NOTES: Phosphorus Adrenal Gland Tetany ○ Produces: ○ Parathyroid hormone (PTH) Adrenaline Low calcium level Stress Response Diabetes Metabolism ○ Insulin Blood Pressure Growth Hormone (GH) ○ Adrenal Cortex ○ Small Statue Outer part of adrenal gland Myxedema ANAPHYSIO: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY MODULE # 8 TOPICS 3 3  LESSON 8 : ENDOCRINE SYSTEM ANAPHYSIO MIDTERMS | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025 | PROF. EDWIN MIRAFLOR | MS. ROSALIE MALIJAN ○ T3 & T4 Low metabolic rate Inadequate production of thyroid hormone Aldosterone Hormone ○ Increase absorption of water & salt, Oxytocin and Posterior Pituitary Gland ○ Milk Ejection Thyroid Enlargement (goiter) ○ lack of iodine Cretinism ○ under secretion/production of underactive thyroid in infancy ANAPHYSIO: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY MODULE # 8 TOPICS 3 4 Blood  LESSON 9 : BLOOD CIRCULATORY SYSTEM ANAPHYSIO MIDTERMS | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025 | PROF. EDWIN MIRAFLOR | MS. ROSALIE MALIJAN Include antibodies that protect against BLOOD microorganisms. ○ Fibrinogen (4%): Vital for blood clotting INTRODUCTION Formed Elements: ○ 45% of blood volume, including red blood cells Blood is a connective tissue and the fluid of the (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs), and platelets. circulatory system, responsible for transporting substances ○ Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes): such as hormones, immune cells, nutrients, glucose, and Make up 95% of the formed elements, oxygen. carry oxygen and carbon dioxide. It also removes waste products like carbon dioxide. ○ White Blood Cells (Leukocytes): Fight infections and protect the body. FUNCTION AND COMPOSITION ○ Platelets (Thrombocytes): Aid in blood clotting. FUNCTIONS RED BLOOD CELLS (RBCs / ERYTHROCYTES) Gas Exchange: ○ Transports oxygen from the lungs to tissues and INTRODUCTION carbon dioxide back to the lungs. Nutrient Transport: Biconcave shape for increased surface area. ○ Distributes nutrients absorbed from the Anucleate (no nucleus) to maximize space for hemoglobin, digestive system to body tissues. which carries oxygen. Waste Transport: Cannot divide; function primarily in oxygen and carbon ○ Carries urea to the kidneys for excretion. dioxide exchange. Regulatory Molecule Transport: Hemoglobin: ○ Carries enzymes and hormones that regulate ○ An iron-containing protein that binds oxygen. body processes. ○ Oxyhemoglobin: Bright red, oxygen-bound form. Homeostasis: ○ Deoxyhemoglobin: Darker red, oxygen-released ○ Helps maintain body temperature, water form. content, and pH balance. Protection: ABO BLOOD GROUP SYSTEM ○ Blood clots seal damaged vessels, and white blood cells defend against foreign invaders. Classifies blood based on the presence of antigens A and B on RCBs. COMPOSITION ○ Type A: Has A antigens and anti-B antibodies Plasma: ○ Type B: ○ Comprises 55% of blood volume. Has B antigens and anti-A antibodies ○ Contains 91% water and 9% solutes (proteins, ○ Type AB: ions, nutrients, gasses, waste, and regulatory Has both A and B antigens but no substances). antibodies ○ Functions in heat distribution and the exchange ○ Type O: of substances between cells and body fluids. Has neither A nor B antigens but has Plasma Proteins: both anti-A and anti-B antibodies. ○ Albumin (58%): Regulates water movement and RH BLOOD GROUP transports substances like fatty acids and hormones. ○ Globulins (38%): RH-Positive: presence of D antigen ANAPHYSIO: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY MODULE # 9 TOPICS 4 1  LESSON 9 : BLOOD CIRCULATORY SYSTEM ANAPHYSIO MIDTERMS | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025 | PROF. EDWIN MIRAFLOR | MS. ROSALIE MALIJAN Rh-Negative: Lack of D antigen, can develop anti-D Diapedesis: antibodies upon exposure. ○ WBCs squeeze through blood vessels to reach infected or damaged tissues. DISEASE Chemotaxis: ○ WBCs move toward areas of tissue damage or infection. Agglutination ○ Occurs when antibodies attack foreign RBC antigens, causing clumping. PLATELETS (THROMBOCYTES) Hemolysis ○ Destruction of RBCS INTRODUCTION WHITE BLOOD CELLS (WBCs / LEUKOCYTES Small, colorless cell fragments involved in blood clotting. Form platelet plugs to seal small breaks in blood vessels. INTRODUCTION Release clotting factors, forming a fibrin mesh that traps RBCs and platelets to form a clot. Larger than RBCs, retain their nuclei, and perform immune functions. EXTRA INFO AND DISEASES Capable of diapedesis, where they squeeze through blood vessel walls to reach tissues. Hemostasis ( Cessation of Bleeding) Chemotaxis: WBCs move toward areas of infection or damage. Vascular Spasms: ○ Constriction of blood vessels to reduce blood TYPES OF WBCs flow. Platelet Plug Formation: Two types: ○ Platelets adhere to the exposed collagen fibers ○ Granulocytes: in damaged vessels, forming a plug. Neutrophils: Coagulation (Blood Clotting): Most common, active in ○ Fibrin threads form a mesh that traps blood bacterial infections. cells, creating a solid clot. Eosinophils: ○ Thrombin is formed, converting fibrinogen to Combat parasites and play fibrin to create the mesh. a role in allergic reactions. Basophils: CLOT DISSOLUTION ( FIBRINOLYSIS) Release histamine in response to allergens, Plasmin aiding in inflammation. ○ Breaks down the fibrin clot after the vessel ○ Agranulocytes: heals Lymphocytes: Involved in antibody HEMATOPOIESIS ( BLOOD CELL FORMATION) production (B cells) and immune responses (T cells). Monocytes: Occurs in red bone marrow from hemocytoblasts (stem Become macrophages that cells). digest pathogens during Regulated by hormones: chronic infections. ○ Erythropoietin: Stimulates RBC production. ○ Colony-Stimulating Factors (CSFs): Stimulate WBC production. ○ Thrombopoietin: Promotes platelet formation. DISEASES ANAPHYSIO: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY MODULE # 9 TOPICS 4 2  LESSON 9 : BLOOD CIRCULATORY SYSTEM ANAPHYSIO MIDTERMS | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025 | PROF. EDWIN MIRAFLOR | MS. ROSALIE MALIJAN ○ S shaped ○ purple/blue stain ○ Less than 1% WBCs LABORATORY NOTES: Eosinophils: ○ Bilobed nucleus ○ Large granules INTRO NOTES ○ 1-4% WBCs Neutrophils: Erythrocyte ○ Multi Bilobed ○ Transports oxygen ○ Fine Granules ○ Red blood cells ○ neutral loving Megakaryocyte ○ Pink/lilac stain ○ Ancestral cell of platelets ○ 50-70% RBCs Plasma AGRANULOCYTES: ○ Water Monocytes ○ Non-cellular ○ Large kidney shaped ○ Fluid matrix of blood ○ Grayish Hematocrit ○ 2-8% RBCs ○ Percentage of RBC ○ Phagocyte in chronic infections Hemolysis Lymphocytes: ○ Destruction of RBCs ○ Large round Homeostasis ○ Clear blue ○ Equilibrium ○ 20-70% RBCs ○ Body stable Hemostasis COMBINED BLOOD TYPES (ABO + Rh Factor): ○ Stops bleeding Normal platelet count ○ 150/300 By combining the ABO and Rh systems, the possible blood types are: Normal Blood Pressure ○ 120/80 ○ A+ ○ A- ○ B+ COMPONENTS OF BLOOD ○ B- ○ AB+ Nutrients: ○ AB- ○ Fatty acids ○ O+ ○ Amino acids ○ O- ○ Vitamins AB+ universal recipient ○ Glucose ○ Can receive any blood type Electrolytes: O+ universal donor ○ Sodium ○ Can be given to individuals of any blood types ○ Potassium ○ Calcium DISEASES Gasses: ○ Oxygen ○ Carbon Dioxide Leukocytosis ○ increase WBC Leukopenia 5 TYPES OF WHITE BLOOD CELL ( B E N M L ) ○ decrease WBC Thrombocytosis GRANULOCYTES: ○ increase Platelets Basophils: Thrombocytopenia ANAPHYSIO: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY MODULE # 9 TOPICS 4 3  LESSON 9 : BLOOD CIRCULATORY SYSTEM ANAPHYSIO MIDTERMS | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025 | PROF. EDWIN MIRAFLOR | MS. ROSALIE MALIJAN ○ decrease Platelets Polycythemia ○ Increase RBC Anemia ○ Decrease RBC Agglutination ○ clumping in blood Erythroblastosis Fetalis ○ infants RBC destroyed by mothers antibodies Diabetes ○ blood sugar levels too high ○ 2 types Type 1 (insulin dependent) no insulin produced Type 2 don’t produce enough insulin Blood Transfusion incompatibility ○ when received diff type of blood Hypothyroidism ○ Gain weight ○ Puffiness ○ when thyroid gland produce insufficient thyroid hormones Hyperthyroidism ○ lose weight ANAPHYSIO: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY MODULE # 9 TOPICS 4 4 Cardiovascular System  LESSON 10 : CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM ANAPHYSIO MIDTERMS | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025 | PROF. EDWIN MIRAFLOR | MS. ROSALIE MALIJAN HEART WALLS CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM Epicardium: FUNCTIONS ○ The smooth, outer layer, also called the visceral pericardium. Myocardium: Transports and circulates materials throughout the body. Connects organ systems that exchange materials with the ○ Thick middle layer made of cardiac muscle cells, environment. responsible for heart contractions. Endocardium: ○ Smooth inner layer lining the heart chambers COMPONENTS and valves, allowing easy blood flow. Heart: Pumps blood through the body. HEART CHAMBERS Blood Vessels: Carry blood to and from tissues and organs. Blood: Delivers necessary substances and removes waste Atria (Upper Chambers): products from tissues. ○ Right Atrium: Receives deoxygenated blood from the HEART body. ○ Left Atrium: LOCATION, SIZE & SHAPE, MASS, APEX, AND BASE Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs. Location: ○ Interatrial Septum: ○ Found in the mediastinum, a central area of the Separates the left and right atria. thoracic cavity. Ventricles (Lower Chambers): Size & Shape: ○ Right Ventricle: ○ Shaped like a blunt cone, about the size of a Pumps deoxygenated blood to the closed fist. lungs. Mass: ○ Left Ventricle: ○ 250 grams (females). Pumps oxygenated blood to the body. ○ 300 grams (males). ○ Interventricular Septum: Apex & Base: Thick muscular wall separating the left ○ Apex: Rounded point directed left, located deep and right ventricles. to the 5th intercostal space. ○ Base: Flat part extending to the 2nd intercostal HEART VALVES space. Atrioventricular (AV) Valves: HEART FUNCTIONS ○ Located between the atria and ventricles. Tricuspid Valve: Generates Blood Pressure: ○ Between the right atrium and right ventricle. ○ The contractions of the heart create pressure Bicuspid/Mitral Valve: that moves blood through vessels. ○ Between the left atrium and left ventricle. Routes Blood: Chordae Tendineae: ○ Separates pulmonary and systemic circulation, ○ Strong connective tissue attaching AV valve ensuring efficient oxygenation. cusps to papillary muscles in ventricles. Ensures One-Way Flow: Semilunar Valves: ○ Valves prevent backflow of blood through the ○ Located between the ventricles and the arteries. heart and vessels. Pulmonic Valve: Regulates Blood Supply: ○ Between right ventricle and pulmonary artery. ○ Adjusts the rate and strength of heartbeats Aortic Valve: based on tissue demand. ○ Between the left ventricle and aorta. ANAPHYSIO: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY MODULE # 10 TOPICS 5 1  LESSON 10 : CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM ANAPHYSIO MIDTERMS | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025 | PROF. EDWIN MIRAFLOR | MS. ROSALIE MALIJAN HEART SOUNDS CARDIAC CYCLE First Sound (Lubb): Atrial Systole (Active Ventricular Filling): ○ Low-pitched sound caused by the closing of AV ○ Atria contract, pushing blood into the relaxed valves at the start of ventricular systole. ventricles. Second Sound (Dupp): Ventricular Systole: ○ Higher-pitched sound caused by the closing of ○ Isovolumetric Contraction: semilunar valves at the start of ventricular AV valves close as ventricles contract. diastole. ○ Ejection Phase: Semilunar valves open, and blood is PERICARDIUM ejected from ventricles. Ventricular Diastole: ○ Isovolumetric Relaxation: DEFINITION Semilunar valves close as ventricles relax. A double sac membrane that encloses and protects the ○ Passive Ventricular Filling: heart. AV valves open, and blood flows into ventricles. LAYERS BLOOD Fibrous Pericardium: ○ Outer tough layer that prevents over-distension BLOOD VESSELS and anchors the heart. Serous Pericardium: ○ Inner layer of simple squamous epithelium. Pulmonary Vessels: ○ Parts: ○ Transport blood between the heart and lungs. Parietal Pericardium: Systemic Vessels: Lines the fibrous ○ Transport blood throughout the rest of the body. pericardium. Functions: Visceral Pericardium (Epicardium): ○ Carries Blood: Covers the heart’s surface To and from tissues and organs. Pericardial Cavity ○ Exchanges Nutrients, Wastes, and Gases: Space between the visceral Oxygen and nutrients diffuse into cells; and parietal pericardia, filled carbon dioxide and wastes diffuse out. with serous fluid to reduce ○ Regulates Blood Pressure: friction. Works with the heart to maintain normal blood CONDUCTING SYSTEM AND CARDIAC CYCLE CLOT DISSOLUTION ( FIBRINOL INTRODUCTION Tunica Intima: ○ The innermost layer composed of endothelium Sinoatrial (SA) Node: and connective tissue. ○ Natural pacemaker, generates electrical impulses Tunica Media: to initiate heartbeat. ○ Middle layer made of smooth muscle cells that Atrioventricular (AV) Node: regulate vessel diameter ○ Receives signals from SA node, passes them to (vasoconstriction/vasodilation). ventricles. Tunica Externa (Adventitia): Bundle of His & Purkinje Fibers: ○ Outermost layer, composed of connective tissue, ○ Conduct impulses through the heart for providing structural support. synchronized ventricular contraction. ANAPHYSIO: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY MODULE # 10 TOPICS 5 2  LESSON 10 : CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM ANAPHYSIO MIDTERMS | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-2025 | PROF. EDWIN MIRAFLOR | MS. ROSALIE MALIJAN BLOOD FLOW DYNAMICS Arterioles: ○ Smaller branches of arteries leading to capillaries. Laminar Flow: Veins: ○ Smooth, layered blood flow, typical in healthy ○ Large vessels carrying deoxygenated blood back vessels. to the heart. Turbulent Flow: Venules: ○ Irregular flow, often caused by vessel narrowing ○ Small vessels that collect blood from capillaries. or branching. Viscosity: ○ The thickness of blood; higher viscosity MAJOR ARTERIES increases resistance to flow. Vascular Compliance: Aorta: ○ The ability of a blood vessel to expand with ○ Largest artery in the body; carries oxygenated increasing blood pressure. blood from the left ventricle to the body. Pulmonary Arteries: BLOOD PRESSURE ○ Carry deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs. Coronary Arteries: The force that blood exerts against the walls of blood ○ Supply oxygen-rich blood to the heart muscle. vessels. Common Carotid Artery: ○ Delivers oxygenated blood to the head and neck. CIRCULATION Femoral Artery: ○ Supplies oxygenated blood to the thigh and Pulmonary Circulation: knee. ○ Carries blood from the right ventricle to the lungs for gas exchange, then returns it to the left MAJOR VEINS atrium. Systemic Circulation: Vena Cava (Superior & Inferior): ○ Transports oxygenated blood from the left ○ Largest veins in the body, returning ventricle to the rest of the body and returns deoxygenated blood to the right atrium. deoxygenated blood to the right atrium. Pulmonary Veins: ○ Return oxygenated blood from the lungs to the CAPILLARIES left atrium. Jugular Vein: Function: ○ Drains deoxygenated blood from the head and ○ The smallest blood vessels where nutrient and neck. gas exchange occurs between blood and Cardiac Veins: interstitial fluid. ○ Carry deoxygenated blood from the heart Interstitial Fluid: muscle to the right atrium. ○ Fluid surrounding body cells, facilitating the exchange of materials between blood and PULSE tissues. Definition: ARTERIES AND VEINS ○ The pressure wave caused by the ejection of blood from the left ventricle into the aorta. INTRODUCTION Clinical Importance: ○ Used to measure heart rate and detect heart Arteries: rhythm abnormalities. ○ Large vessels carrying oxygenated blood away from the heart. ANAPHYSIO: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY MODULE # 10 TOPICS 5 3