NCM 111 Lecture - Midterms PDF

NCM 111 LECTURE – MIDTERMS experiences of people with first hand (WHO, 2006). International organizations knowledge of a phenomenon. have initiated numerous actions in OVERVIEW OF RESEARC...

NCM 111 LECTURE – MIDTERMS experiences of people with first hand (WHO, 2006). International organizations knowledge of a phenomenon. have initiated numerous actions in OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH PROCESS Human beings are being used directly as promotion of the practice of 6 month QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH the instrument through which information is exclusive breastfeeding… Quantitative research uses deductive gathered. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND reasoning to generate predictions that are RESEARCH PROCESS CHAPTER 1: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK tested in the real world. THE PROBLEM AND ITS SCOPE The theoretical framework consists of It typically move in a systematic fashion The Introduction of a research starts with theories, principles, generalizations and from the definition of a problem and the the background of the study. It should be research findings selection of concepts on which to focus to strong enough to capture the interest of The theoretical framework contains the the solution of the problem. your readers and focused on the main different theories by which the study is It gathers empirical evidences and perspective of the problem. anchored observations. Make sure that the context is supported by The theoretical and conceptual frameworks The requirement to use empirical evidence authorities. of the study are under one heading. means that findings are grounded in reality The Introduction must be concluded by The discussion of the theoretical framework rather than in researcher’s personal beliefs. highlighting the need to conduct the study must be clearly discussed separately in The numeric information that is obtained citing in brief its significance. order to give a clearer understanding from a formal measurement and is A PORTION OF RESEARCH INTRODUCTION where the study is theoretically grounded. analyzed statistically. ABOUT EXCLUSIVE BREASTFEEDING The conceptual framework emerges as the QUALITATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAM. synthesis of the key concepts from the Qualitative research emphasize the Due to extensive researches’ efforts in different theories presented. inherent complexity of humans, their ability proving that breastfeeding is highly Conceptual frameworks attempt to connect to shape and create their own experiences, beneficial to the nutrition of mothers and all aspects of inquiry. and the idea that truth is a composite of infants, the health advantages that Conceptual frameworks should act like realities. breastfeeding may offer are now widely maps that give coherence to your inquiry. Qualitative research heavily focused on recognized all throughout the world. The conceptual framework becomes the understanding the human experience as it The American Academy of Pediatrics central theme, the focus, the main thrust of is lived, usually through the careful (2005) recommends that infants be the study. It serves as a guide in conducting collection and analysis of qualitative breastfed exclusively for first 6 months of investigation. materials that are narrative and subjective. life and for the breastfeeding to continue Findings from in depth qualitative research for at least 12 months to 2 years. Exclusive are typically grounded in the real life breast milk also implies that an infant shall not receive any other liquids or solids dissimilar to breast milk not even water 1 A PORTION OF THEORETICAL AND 1.2 age during post natal; SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ABOUT 1.3 family income; It would address the 3 W's (What , Who EXCLUSIVE BREASTFEEDING PROGRAM. 1.4 religion; and and Why) and How ? The Theory of Unitary Human Beings by 1.5 educational attainment? The researcher states the value or Martha Rogers is very much related to the 2. What is the level of awareness among the importance of the research study. 6 month exclusive breastfeeding program teenage mother respondents with regards It answers How your study would be a in the sense that, this particular program to the 6 month exclusive breastfeeding? contribution to the accumulation of existing being promoted by the health advocates 3. What is the extent of compliance of the knowledge must be clearly articulated”. greatly affects to the environment of the respondents with regards to the A PORTION OF “SIGNIFICANCE OF infants and mothers. This serves as an implementation of the 6 month exclusive STUDY”ABOUT EXCLUSIVE BREASTFEEDING external factor that advances to the breastfeeding? PROGRAM. conduct of breastfeeding by the mothers to 4. How are the teenage mothers respondents This study will assess the compliance of the their infants. differ in their awareness and extent of 6 month exclusive breastfeeding program On one hand, Dorothea E. Orem presented compliance when grouped according to among teenage mothers ages 15 19 years her theory known as the Self Care Theory. their demographic data characteristics. old who gave birth at St. Jude Hospital of Orem's vision of health is a state HYPOTHESES/ASSUMPTIONS Barangay Joseph in Quezon City from characterized by wholeness of developed If the study is qualitative, the heading is year 2020 until 2022 human structures and of bodily and mental Assumptions. SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY functioning and comprised of the physical, Known as “Educated guess or educated This will builds a fence around the research psychological, interpersonal and social prediction”. findings. aspects. A hypothesis is used in an experiment to The ‘population’ about which findings are STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM define the relationship between two to be made, is outlined here. The Statement of the Problem is written in variables. DEFINITION OF TERMS interrogative form. A hypothesis should be specific and Definitions should match the underlying The research questions are the bases of testable prediction. assumptions of the research. developing the methods of the study. A SAMPLE HYPOTHESIS ABOUT EXCLUSIVE Terms should be operationally defined as All research questions have theoretical BREASTFEEDING PROGRAM. used in the study. bases There is no significant relationship between All the major construct/variable should be A PORTION OF “STATEMENT OF THE the compliance of the teenage mother to operationally defined. PROBLEM” ABOUT EXCLUSIVE the 6 month exclusive breastfeeding BREASTFEEDING PROGRAM. program and the respondents’ social It should be presented in an alphabetized 1. What is the demographic characteristics of demographic profile. format. the respondents in terms of: 1.1 age during pre natal; 2 DEFINITION OF TERMS METHODOLOGY & RESEARCH DESIGN CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH DESIGN Breastfeeding as defined is the action Research Method - involves planning the has the following: wherein an infant has received breastmilk overall framework of the research 1. A detailed explanation of techniques & (straight from the breast or Sampling Design procedures for data collection & analysis. Colostrum is discussed within the introductory → Subjects of the Study - inclusion & 2. A description of the target population, the of this study, but can be approximately exclusion criteria for subject selection, location or setting of the study & the defined as the breast milk in the first two or sampling method, sampling size, unit, procedure for choice of samples or three days postpartum. frame, list, techniques used. respondents. Exclusive breastfeeding is the established 3. A clear description of tools & instruments to → Setting of the study - geographical pattern whereby breastfeeding from the be used & the statistical treatment of data history, location, rationale, basis & mother or wet nurse is assisted by no other to be applied. significance of the setting to the study. food or drink, including water, but with the Criteria for Choice Research Design Research Instruments - basis, validation, exception of drops or syrups such as Logically sound; parts of instruments medicines, mineral supplements or vitamins. 1. Comprehensive enough to solve the Data Collection - procedure, techniques, problem; Full breastfeeding is a general term tools used, time frame for data collection comprising exclusive and predominant 2. Reasonably clear & precise; Statistical treatment of data - descriptive 3. Clearly spelled out; & breastfeeding. statistics or inferential techniques used, 4. Free from weaknesses. formula & its rationale. ELEMENTS TO CONSIDER IN THE CHOICE WHAT IS RESEARCH DESIGN RESEARCH DESIGN is the researcher’s plan of how the study 1. The total population from w/c to select the will be conducted, (includes) study samples; → the type of data that will be collected, 2. The method of selecting the samples or → the techniques or the means to be used to study respondents; obtain these data’ 3. The alternative versions of independent → the reasons for the choice of the subjects, variables under study; → the manner of determining the sample 4. The criterion measures evaluating the size, effects of independent variables; 5. The statistical treatment of data, using → the instruments to be used & their various tools. validation, & BASIC RESEARCH DESIGN → the data analysis scheme w/c includes the EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH application of the statistical tools for → This design is an inquiry on cause-and- treatment of data. effect relationships, 3  → Conducted in a specialized setting (lab, objectively answer all research questions experimental and the nonexperimental research center). or test research hypothesis. groups. → Researcher controls & manipulates the ALL EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES SHOULD HAVE 2. External Validity - This is the degree to independent variable & randomly THE FF. CHARACTERISTICS: which study results can be influenced or assigns the subjects to different conditions 1. Internal Validity - the degree to w/c affected by other populations and settings. or solutions. changes in the dependent variable (effects) Threats to External Validity: Example: can be attributed to the independent a. The Hawthorne Effect - occurs when study → “The risk of post-partal infections to variable (cause). participants respond in a particular patients w/ external flushing compared Threats to Internal Validity: manner, or there is obvious change of to patients w/o external flushing” A. Selection Bias - this exist when study results behavior because they are aware that TYPES EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH: are attributed to the experimental they are being observed. 1. True Experiment - an inquiry that considers treatment, when in fact, results are due to b. The Experimenter Effect - refers to a 4 properties of experimental research: differences among the subjects even threat to study results when the researcher’s A. Manipulation - researcher subjects the before the treatment. behaviour influences the behaviour of the respondents to a particular situation for B. History - occurs when some event besides subjects, such as the researcher’s facial a specific purpose. the experimental treatment takes place expression, gender, and clothing among B. Control - researcher imposes certain during the course of the study and affects others. Threats to External Validity: -cont’d conditions over experimental situation or influences the dependent variable. c. The Reactive Effect of the Pre-Test - occurs such as the use of: Threats to Internal Validity: when the subjects have been sensitized to - A Control Group - subjected to C. Maturation - take place when changes the treatment by taking the pre-test. treatment within the subjects occurs during the d. The Halo Effect - this is the tendency of the - An Experimental Group - not subjected experimental study, thus, influencing study researcher to rate the subject high or low to treatment results. because the impression he/she has on the C. Randomization - researcher assigns D. Testing - possible testing threat in studies in latter. subjects to a control or experimental which a pre-test is a requisite. This refers to → To minimize threats to external validity, group on random basis, w/c means that the influence of the pre-test, which already the double blind method may be used to every subject has an equal chance of projects the results of the post-test scores. remove the observer’s bias being assigned to any group. E. Instrumentation Change - he existence of a → If the double blind method is not D. Validity - researcher is interested in difference between pre-test and post-test feasible, the double observer method controlling extraneous variables (in results caused by change in the accuracy of may be used to determine the extent of experimental studies & similar types) that the instrument or the ratings, rather than a bias between the two observers as they may create spurious results or findings. result of the experimental treatment. observe and record the subjects’ F. Mortality - occurs when a difference exists performance in a dependent variable. → Hence, researcher must ensure the between the subject dropout rates of the validity of data gathered, so it will 4 TYPES OF TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS permits testing of multiple hypotheses in → Subjects are assigned to two or more BASIC EXPERIMENT a single experiment. different treatments or conditions. 1. The Post-Test only Design - refers to → A separate analysis is done on the → The influence of one treatment on the the randomization and experimental effects of the independent variables on subject may be carried over to the next treatment of the subjects that were the dependent variables and the treatments. completed, followed by a post-test on interaction effects between these → Therefore, a difference existing between the performance of the subjects on variables. each treatment can be accurately certain variables. Example: Factoral Design ascertained by the subjects of the study. 2. The Pre-Test and Post-Test Design - An experiment to know the performance of → This type of within-subjects design has a refers to the pre-test and post-test male and female (Sex-Ind. Variable 1) in the high equivalence advantage since the conducted before and after the relief of pain (Dep. Variable) under the effects participants or subjects of the study are experimental treatment was done to the of varying amounts of same drug dosage exposed to the same treatments or control and experimental group. measured in milligrams (Ind. Variable 2). The conditions. SOLOMON FOUR GROUP DESIGN researcher is concerned with differences in pain BASIC RESEARCH DESIGN - CONT’D - involves two control groups and two relief related to: QUASI-EXPERIMENT experimental groups. A. Sex; → This is an experiment that lacks one or → One control and experimental group B. The amount of drug taken; and more of the four (4) properties of the true takes the pre-test before treatment while C. The interaction effect of sex and drug experiment. the other group does not. RANDOMIZED BLOCK DESIGN → The missing ingredient is either → However, both group will get the post- → In this design, there are two independent randomization or the control group or the test after the treatment, thereby variables, but on independent variable is validity component. segregating the effects of pre-test not experimentally manipulated due to measure and intervention before and the heterogeneous randomized → This method ultimately depends, in part, after treatment. assignments of subjects. on human judgement rather than on objective criteria, hence, validity of cause → Example of Solomon → This is called the blocking variable. and effect inferences may be challenged. → The blocking variable allows the ADVANTAGES OF THE EXPERIMENTAL researcher to control the sample size if it DESIGN: is perceived to be a confounding 1. Explains and establishes casual variable. relationships of variables; CROSSOVER DESIGN 2. Increases purity of observations; → In this study, different people are 3. Creates conditions in the experimental FACTORIAL DESIGN randomly assigned to different setting that approximates the natural → There is simultaneous manipulation of two treatments. setting; and or more independent variable which 5 4. Free from the pressures of daily life when journal analysis, browsing articles from interpretation of statistical tabulations conducted in a controlled unit. the internet and website and of data yielded by survey. DISADVANTAGES OF THE EXPERIMENTAL teleconferencing among others. Types of Descriptive Research DESIGN → The end product of research is purely 1. Descriptive Normative Surveys 1. Dangerous, particularly if human beings knowledge. → Self-reported data are collected from are used as subjects; 2. Applied Research or “Action Research” samples for purposes of describing 2. Difficult to create conditions; → This is undertaken for practical populations in relation to specific given 3. Time constraints; purposes. variables. 4. Non-cooperation of subjects; → It seeks solutions to immediate problems → Involves the classification and 5. Populations constraints; and that have been identified enumeration of collated data which are 6. A generalization may not be reliable if gathered using the questionnaires. → It is a collaborative process involving done in an artificial setting. → Surveys are conducted by phone, mail other members of the team that NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH or through personal contact with the provides solutions to practical problems Researcher does not interfere with nature, in the organization. subjects. and the conditions for research are realistic Types of Applied Research: → Data collections are mostly done or natural. a. Historical Design through questionnaires and interviews. Often known as “surveys”, which have less → A critical investigation and analysis of 2. Correlational Studies control over the study subjects and the events, developments and experiences → These studies examine the extent of setting where it is conducted. of the past. It describes past events in relationship between variables by They are research situations in which the relation to the present situations and determining how changes in one researcher cannot control and manipulate then analyze and interpret the variable relate to changes in another the independent variable. implications of past events to the variable. They are mostly conducted in natural present trends or practices. Types of → Also called explanatory research. settings such as schools, hospitals and other Non-experimental Design → Discovers how the phenomena under public health agencies, and homes of b. Descriptive Design study are related. patients, among others. → A study that describes the nature of → Premised on the thinking that, it is not TYPES OF NON-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN phenomenon under investigation after enough to say that something happens, 1. Basic Library Research a survey of current trends, practices but more importantly, one has to find → This is intended to increase knowledge and conditions that relate to that out why it happened. in science. phenomenon. 3. Comparative Studies → Also called pure research for purposes → Involves analysis of an extremely → These are studies that examine several of generating new knowledge. broad range of phenomena, its result is intact groups to find out the difference → Basic research includes reading books a comprehensive presentation and and literature, listening to discussions, 6  between and among them in certain → Its objective is to improve specific CROSS-SECTIONAL DATA dependent variables of interest. situations derived from reliable and The researcher dips into the study setting at → There is no manipulation of independent accurate data. a given point in time after the study design variables because characteristics of the 6. Decision-Making is completed, then gather present data on subjects are inherent such as personality → This study selects the most feasible events occurring at that time. type, educational level and medical course of action from given alternatives It examines the subjects at one point in condition. to solve the problem. time, and is conducted when the time frame → Applicable to the following: a. → Useful in policy making and in improving is of short duration. Descriptive study, b. Experimental study. the image of nursing as a profession. RETROSPECTIVE DATA 4. Descriptive Evaluative Surveys or 7. Case Study. Frequently called ex-post facto studies. Methodological Studies → This is an in-depth study of a single case In this particular type, data are collected → Concerned with development, testing or limited number of typical, on events in the past before a study design and evaluation of methods, procedures, interconnected cases intended to is completed, or data collected “after the guidelines and instruments after which interpret their behavior relative to the fact”. an evaluative judgement is done. occurrence of certain events or PROSPECTIVE DATA → Also used to revise, modify existing phenomenon of interest to the discipline. Refers to future data or events that programs or develop more effective 8. Content Analysis occurred after the study design has been programs, methods and procedures in → This is the process of synthesizing or completed, but the study is pursues over nursing for more efficient and effective dissecting information and messaged relatively long period of time into the delivery of health care. embodied in documents. future. → Also known as developmental or 9. Feasibility Study → Prospective and retrospective evaluative research. → This type of study tries to determine the researches are sometimes called → Further aims to test the viability, quality viability of an undertaking or a business longitudinal studies because they extend or effectiveness of a product, program, venture and establishing an institution or over a long period of time. method or procedure and answer constructing infrastructure. → All experimental studies are specific questions on these. TYPES OF RESEARCH DATA prospective, and have the advantage of 5. Problem-Solving The type of research data is determined the possibility of manipulating research → All researches are investigations leading by the purpose of the study, the method of variables and observing the effects of to solutions of problems. research used, and the tools to be used in these after a period of time. → One makes assessments of need and gathering these data. Research data Retrospective → cross-sectional → prospective problems and generates alternative greatly affect the implications of research Past → current → future solutions to problems. findings and the development of theory. 7  TYPES OF RESEARCH DATA REASONS BASIC RESEARCH DESIGN - CONT’D → Uses the deductive or theory-testing FOR CONDUCTING NONEXPERIMENTAL COMBINED EXPERIMENTAL AND NON- approach RESEARCH EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH 1. Situations are such that the individual These are known as “partial experiments” SURVEYS variable is inherently non-manipulable. or partially controlled non-experimental These types of research gather primarily 2. There are variables that can be designs. quantitative data such as what people do, technically manipulated, but should not Extraneous variables may exist which the how or what they eat, how to meet their be, for ethical reasons. researcher may not be able to control, thus health needs, their compliance in taking 3. There are situations in which it is causing inaccurate data. medications, and what family planning deemed impractical or undesirable to A natural setting is used. behaviour they engage in, among others. conduct experiments. METHODOLOGICAL RESEARCH However, the researcher exercises some 4. There are also these situations in which This is concerned with the development of control in the assignment of the study the researcher observes manifestations an instrument or procedure that measures subjects to various study groups. Basic of events and determines factors that effect or change on the dependent QUANTITATIVE & QUALITATIVE RESEARCH have caused these variable. DESIGN ADVANTAGES OF NON-EXPERIMENTAL CLINICAL TRIALS OR INTERVENTION 1. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH RESEARCH RESEARCH 1. Retrospective and less expensive; → Applies to the manipulation and control of phenomena and verification of results, Example: Clinical Trial to test a nurse 2. Adequate time; using empirical data gathered through managed intervention called “Smoking 3. Cooperation is easy to obtain; and the senses. Cessation Intervention (SCI)” compared to a 4. Funding may be available for a → Concerned with the objective meaning of “routine or standard treatment” among representative target population. experience to an individual. women who smoke. DISADVANTAGES OF NON-EXPERIMENTAL → There is rigid control of the research Phase I RESEARCH 1. Not capable of estimating causal situation and the generalization of Pre-experimental design of the SCI to relationship in the same degree as findings. determine its efficacy and safety. experimental research; → also considered as “hard science”, Phase II 2. Not applicable to a new product or characterized by replicable and reliable Pilot test of the SCI to seek evidences for procedure; data. possible side effects. 3. Is not useful in the development of theories, → Applies to both experimental and Phase III principles and concepts. nonexperimental studies that yield Actual experimentation using a 4. Oftentimes not considered as true research numerical data which can be subjected to Randomized Clinical Trial (RCT) assignment and may not get financial support. statistical analysis. of samples to a control group (standard treatment) and experimental group (SCI treatment). This is used to arrive at a 8  decision of whether the SCI is more events peculiar to certain field of 4. Describing - Defining and interpreting the effective than the standard treatment in practice. meaning of the phenomenon under study. helping women stop smoking. → A bricoleur is a person who is immersed ETHNOGRAPHIC STUDIES Phase IV in a study situation and has the expertise These refer to the collection and analysis of Adopting the decision arrived at Phase III. in performing qualitative research. A data on the lifestyle and daily activities of The researcher focuses on the long term bricoleur can put together a complex ethnics. effects of intervention including its benefits array of data derived from a variety of Data involve description and interpretation and side effects. This phase may use the sources and methods called bricolage, of cultural and social behavior of people in non-experimental , experimental (true or ranging from interviewing to observing to a group or system, primarily to understand quasi) design with quantitative analysis. interpreting personal and historical data their world view and how their culture is 2. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH to intensive reflection and introspection communicated and portrayed. → This type focuses on insights into and (Polit and Beck: 2004). GROUNDED THEORY STUDIES understanding of individual perceptions TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH This refer to analysis of data leading to the on the phenomenon under study. PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDIES development of a theory. → Attempts to obtain rich, in-depth and These particular studies examine the lived Data include in-depth interview and valid data which almost always relate to experiences of individuals about a observation of the study participants to non-experimental studies. phenomenon through description and generate comprehensive explanations of → However, it may also be used to enhance analysis. phenomena grounded in reality. the interpretability of quantitative The goal is to describe the “lived HISTORICAL STUDIES findings. experiences and lived human relations or These studies involve identification, → Considered as “soft science”, concerned being in the world of people”, that are of location, critical evaluation and synthesis of with the “subjective” meaning of interest to the researcher or to past events in order to shed light on experience to an individual. phenomenologists (Denzin: 1989) present behaviour, trends or practices. → Makes an in-depth description of people Phenomenological Studies involves the CASE STUDIES or events and data collected through following steps: These refer to the in-depth examination unstructured interview and participant 1. Bracketing - Refers to identifying and and analysis of people or groups of observation. holding in abeyance preconceived beliefs people in relation to issues or problems and opinions about the phenomenon under that are important to the client and the → Generally uses empirical data starting study. researcher. from simple (observed) to complex 2. Intuiting - The researcher is open to (theory) data or the inductive approach. Data includes the client’s history, growth meanings attributed to the phenomenon by → It is not limited to already existing and development patterns and or those who have experienced it. theories but is also open to new ideas or circumstances affecting the client under 3. Analyzing - Dissecting significant meanings study. of statements and events. 9  FIELD STUDIES - These consist of the PHASE 2 PLANNING AND DESIGNING 5. Therapeutic intervention. natural investigations done in the DEFINTION OF TERMS In qualitative studies, conceptual definitions community. g. CONCEPTUAL AND OPERATIONAL of key phenomena may be the major end BIOGRAPHIES - These studies explore the It should match the underlying assumptions product. life of an individual. of the research In quantitative studies, researchers must Data come from collection of life It need to be defined and explicated define concepts at the beginning. documents that describe the turning point It is directly in a study Operational definitions should be or significant moments in the life of an All the major construct/variables discussed congruent with conceptual definitions individual. in the conceptual framework should be It is how the researcher decide to measure Data also include personal history, growth operationally defined the variables in our study. e.g Behavior. and development patterns, significant Alphabetized format It is commonly used in data collection. accomplishments and the implications of It is vital to certain a mutual understanding It must be not-ambiguous, brief yet these to the individual and to society of key concepts and terminologies. thorough definition of a measure. (Smith, 1994). Common lapses: Requirement: thorough understanding → Researchers tend defined terms in an It specifies the operations that researchers extensive way. must perform to collect the required → Researchers tend defined terms in an information. insufficient definition –crucial. Variables differ in the ease with which they “It will enhance readers’ understanding of can be operationalized. Example: Weight important terms.” → The amount that an object weighs in CONCEPTUAL pounds, to the nearest full pound (with These are abstractions of observable the use of spring scale). phenomena, and researchers’ views/ For Example: ANXIETY (How to measure?) interpretation. Defined in both: It’s the theoretic meaning of the concepts → PHYSIOLOGIC: Palmar Sweat Index. being studied. → PSYCHOLOGIC: State Anxiety Scale. Straight forward and complicated terms (Paper & Pen Test) should be defined. For example; CARING: 5 distinct definition: PHASE 2 1. Human trait. THE DESIGN AND PLANNING PHASE 2. Moral imperative. Second major phase of quantitative 3. Affect. research. 4. Interpersonal relationship. 10  Researchers must consider “FLEXIBILITY”. Methodological - reliability and validity of  Major component: Core Variable Integrity of results. instruments  Strives to generate explanations of If flawed –may have little value. Major Characteristics: Collection of data phenomena that are grounded in without any intervention reality. Designing and Planning Phase includes: QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL → Ethnography → Validity To examine the effects of an intervention.  It provides framework for studying → Research Design Major Characteristics: It test casual person’s life ways and experiences. → Study Population  Learned from other cultural group and hypothesis, Manipulation -missing, Control → Sampling Plan members. and Randomization → Data Collection Methods EXPERIMENTAL  It describe and interpret cultural → Finalizing the Research Plan To examine the effects of an intervention. behavior. VALIDITY  For data gathering/ inquiry: Major Characteristics: Manipulation, It is a more complex concept that broadly Control, Randomization Participant observation an social concerns the soundness of the study’s RESEARCH DESIGN interactions. evidence.(Polit& Beck, 20012). QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN → Critical Theory It is a quality criterion that indicates the  Critique of society and envisioning new The design typically evolves over the degree of accuracy of study conclusions possibilities. course of the study. (Polit& Beck, 20012).  It is action oriented. It uses emergent design –reflecting on what Validity question - is the method used  Integrate theory and practice : was learned, reflection of their desires and really measurable? contradictions and disparities in beliefs. inquiries. RESEARCH DESIGN  Rejects: Objective and disinterested It examines subjective experience of a inquirer. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN phenomenon.  Feature: Self-knowledge & It require control, precise measurement, COMMON QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN and numerical data Sociopolitical action → Phenomenology CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH DESIGN Non-experimental designs –describes  A disciplinary field in philosophy, phenomenon. e.g: Methodological research. Non-experimental research.  A movement in the history of philosophy. Quasi-experimental or experimental No assumptions used.  To understand the lived experiences of designs –used to determine the effect of Examine relationship between two persons. an intervention variables.  The central structure : intentionality. NON-EXPERIMENTAL Example: Human adults height and weight. → Grounded Theory Descriptive – describe characteristics or DIAGNOSTIC RESEARCH DESIGN  To understand the social and prevalence. psychological processes. Study a case/phenomenon. Correlational - to examine variables.  Focus: Social Experience 3 Diagnostic Research Design Phases: 11  1. Problem Inception SAMPLING PROCEDURE to be included. Exclusion are those that are 2. Problem Diagnosis GUIDEPOSTS ON THE SAMPLING disqualified to participate in the study. 3. Problem Solution PROCEDURE SAMPLING DEVELOPING INTERVENTION PROTOCOLS UNIVERSE The process of selecting a representative FOR EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN This is a totality of elements to w/c research portion of the population to represent the Participants exposed to treatment findings may apply. entire population. conditions. Also refers to to the target population, the A practical & efficient means of ensuring Example: Biofeedback in treating group of people or objects from w/c the the quality of data that will be gathered. hypertension. researcher intends to collect data & a. Sampling Unit - a specific area/place Ultimate Goal: People in each group generalize the findings of the study. b. Sampling Frame - a complete list of treated in the same way. Elements - refer to entities that make up sampling units from w/c the sample is Interventions can be weakened. the sample & the population. drawn. → Vary person to person. POPULATION c. Sampling Design - the scheme that Refers to the accessible group of specifies the number of samples drawn Solution: individuals from w/c the sample will be from the population, the inclusion & 1. Strive for constancy of conditions. drawn by the researcher, consistent w/ exclusion criteria for the choice & the 2. Need for standardization. specific criteria, or total possible sampling technique used. 3. Procedural manuals. participation of the group in the study. SLOVEN FORMULA CAN BE USED TO GET 4. Training and vigilant monitoring Also refers to that portion of the universe THE SAMPLE SIZE Experimental Intervention is CHALLENGING 𝑁 → Involve Human Beings (agents, accessible to the researcher 𝑛= SPECIFIC POPULATION TYPES: 1 + 𝑁𝑒 beneficiaries, administrators and the Where: like) A. Target population - group of individuals or objects about w/c speculative information n - is the number of samples Common Pitfall: N - is the population is desired. → RESISTANCE to TRIAL OR B. Subjects or Respondent Population - the e - sampling error ranging from 1% to 10% INTERVENTION group of individuals or objects chosen to d. Sampling Size - the total number of provide data & information needed in samples who will participate in the study research. after the sampling design was completed. C. Stratum - a mutually exclusive segment of SAMPLE the population, distinguished by one or A portion of the population from w/c data more trait or qualifications. will be solicited. D. Eligibility or Inclusion Criteria - the A subgroup of the population w/c characteristics specified in the population constitutes the subject of the study. 12  May be categorized as respondents who Exclusion criteria C. Purposive or Judgment Sampling - subjects will: → Grades 90% & below are handpicked to be included in the - respond to the survey → More than 3 years in the doctoral program sampling frame based on qualities for - receive treatment or special attention study purposes of the study. Researcher may experience sampling bias → With grade deficiency(ies)/INC Subjects are viewed as “typical cases” or distortions that may arise when a 4. Specify the Sampling Design. Once the or “experts” that provide enough data sample is not representative of the respondent population is identified, decide to answer the research questions. population. how the samples will be chosen & how Commonly used in qualitative research. POWER SAMPLING large this will be by considering the D. Snowball or Network Sampling - consists of In quantitative studies, POWER is standard representative proportion of the identification of a few persons who meet for determining sample size for adequacy. population. the requisite characteristics of the study & Adequate power means there are enough 5. Recruit the subjects & seek their who in turn refer other individuals who may subjects to detect difference in the cooperation & support. A screening be interviewed until desired number of dependent variable. instrument may be used to determine if the respondents is reached. STEPS IN SAMPLING subjects meet the inclusion & exclusion E. Modal Instance Sampling 1. Identify the target population or the criteria set in the study. used when one wishes to investigate universe. The group to w/c you want to TYPES OR CATEGORIZATION OF SAMPLING thoughts & actions of ‘typical’ people & apply your findings. NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING when the researcher fears that significant 2. Identify your respondent population. The Respondents are selected in a non-random data about this group of people might be portion of the target population accessible way. lost in a more general study. to you from whom you will draw needed Researcher desires to use available ADVANTAGES OF NON-PROBABILITY data & information. subjects at her/his convenience anytime SAMPLING 3. Specify the Inclusion & Exclusion criteria for during the period of the study. 1. Convenient respondent selection. Types of Non-Probability Sampling 2. Economical → Criteria must be specific w/ respect to A. Accidental or Convenience Sampling - uses DISADVANTAGES OF NON-PROBABILITY characteristics of the population. the most readily or most convenient group SAMPLING Example: of people or objects as study respondents. 1. It is likely to produced biased samples or Inclusion criteria: B. Quota Sampling - divides the population errors in judgment because the researcher into homogeneous strata or subpopulations cannot estimate the precise elements of → Doctoral graduating students w/ no to ensure representative proportions of the population that will be included in the grade deficiency (ies)/INC various strata in the sample. samples. → Male & Female 2. Certain elements may have no chance to → Had passed the comprehensive exam → Researcher establishes desired be included in the sample. proportions for some variables of interest to be able to elicit homogeneous data. 13 TYPES OR CATEGORIZATION OF SAMPLING DISADVANTAGES OF PROBABILITY 1. Ensures quality of subjects thru inclusion & PROBABILITY SAMPLING SAMPLING exclusion criteria. Involves the random selection of subjects or It is time consuming, expensive, 2. Acknowledge & specify the scope 7 elements of the population. inconvenient, & impossible to obtain. limitations of the study. The goal is to examine representative REASONS WHY STUDY RESPONDENTS MUST 3. Maximizes time & effort for better & elements of the population. BE SAMPLED accurate collection of data. STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING 1. There are instances when complete 4. Ensures quality of data since the sampling Divides the population into homogeneous involvement of all members of the process helps control or eliminates subgroups from w/c the elements are population is not possible. extraneous variables. selected at random. 2. It is generally cheaper & more expeditious 5. Economic & financial concerns. CLUSTER SAMPLING OR MULTI-STAGE to involve only an adequate sampling of SAMPLING the study subjects than all members of the RESEARCH INSTRUMENTATION The successive selection of random samples target population. Hence, sampling reduces Nature of Research Instruments It serve as from larger to smaller units by either cost & time consumed. measurements tools & are integral simple random or stratified random 3. Inclusion of all members of a population is component of any nursing research study. methods. often not worth the time & expense due to Must be reliable or consistent or valid that lack of capacity of the subjects to take can measure what it intends to measure It involves several stages in drawing the part in the intellectual endeavors such as and contribute to the scientific integrity of samples from the population. research. Results from a well selected a research project. SYSTEMATIC OR SEQUENTIAL SAMPLING sample can be as precise as data obtained Guidelines for Developing Research Instruments The section of every 10th name in a list of from total population. 1. The instruments must suit the purpose of the subjects in odd or even numbered rooms; 4. In some instances, the process of study. It must help solve problems raised in every 5th house; every 6th baby in the measurement can introduce spurious the study. nursery. influence on the research. 2. It must be able to gather needed data for The sequence of selection can also be 5. The number of study subjects should be testing the hypotheses and answer research done, using odd or even numbered names kept as small as feasibly possible when the questions raised in the study. in sampling list. independent variable could have 3. Indicators in the instrument must be valid, The researcher picks out the 1st name by unpleasant side effects on the subjects. arrange logically and relate to the chance, then proceeds to every 5th or 10th 6. Studies w/ non-human subjects involves a problems and hypotheses of the study. name. measuring process that sometimes destroys 4. 4. Indicators should be so stated that ADVANTAGES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING the sampling units. economic reasons respondents` perception or reactions will There is less bias, as every element in the warrant limitation of the sample size. not be biased. population is given an equal (independent) Importance of Sampling 5. It should be reliable and can produce chance to be selected. comparable data when used on different 14  subjects or respondents under different 5. Respondents must be literate and with no 4. Interviewers need training. circumstances physical handicaps. SCALES 6. It should be constructed in such a way that 6. Rate of retrieval can be low because Scalers are devices designed to assign a cheating is minimized, if not discouraged. retrieval itself is difficult. numeric score to people to place them on a 7. The instrument should be easy to INTERVIEW continuum with respect to attributes being administer. Directions should be specific → the next most used research instrument. measured. and simply stated. → The researcher, in a one-on-one dialogue Likert Scale 8. The scale of measurement must be with the subject, asks or reads the questions Semantic Differential appropriate and reliable. to elicit answers from the latter. Visual Analog Scale TYPES OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS Types: QUESTIONNAIRE Vignettes A. Structured Interview → a self-directing instrument structured with Q Sorts B. Unstructured Interview questions and indicators for respondent to TYPES OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS react. Methods of Interviewing: SCANNING QUESTIONNAIRES A. Personal Interview → used with questionnaires that have been B. Telephone Survey administered in face-to-face interviews, C. Mail Surveys mail surveys completed by an interview D. Computer Direct Interviewees over the telephone. E. E-mail Surveys SELF-REPORTS Advantages of Questionnaires F. Internet/Intranet (Web Page) Surveys A measure where a person is asked to 1. Facilitates data gathering Advantages of Interviews report his or her own behavior or mental 2. Easy to test data for reliability and validity 1. Responses are broad and varied. contents. 3. Less time consuming than interview and 2. Respondents can give complete answers if In fact, self-report measures are notoriously observation questions are well structured. inaccurate and unreliable. 4. Preserves the anonymity and confidentiality 3. Verbal and non-verbal behavior can be The least accurate type of self-report of the respondents’ reaction and answers. observe measure is retrospective self-report. Disadvantages of Questionnaires 4. There is flexibility in questions and asks ANECDOTAL RECORDS & OTHER 1. Printing and mailing is costly respondents` reaction to these. DOCUMENTARY MATERIALS 2. Response rate may be low Disadvantages of Interviews Anecdotal records are personal accounts 3. Respondents may provide only socially 1. They can be time consuming and expensive. of the researcher written on a notebook acceptable answers. 2. The schedule for interviews may be difficult or typewriter for recording purposes. 4. There is less chance to clarify ambiguous to make MECHANICAL INSTRUMENTS answers. 3. Respondents` answers may be influenced Diagnostic machines by the interviewer`s behavior. 15 PREPARATION OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE & who shall then excluded from the actual → Respondents answer a number of fixed THE INTERVIEW SCHEDULE study participants. alternative responses called 1. The researcher must decide whether data 7. Finally, the researcher should administer dichotomous items. should be collected through interview or a the revised draft to the actual study → This also refers to forced choice questionnaire, how the instrument should be respondents questions since the respondents have to structured, and what information will be TYPES OF QUESTIONS ASKED IN THE select from the options provided by the gathered. INTERVIEW GUIDE/INTERVIEW SCHEDULE researcher. 2. Determine which information is being 1. Structured Types of Close-ended Questions sought, then formulate and record the For formal interviews, the interview a) Dichotomous items questions, properly structured and schedule is used. → These allow respondents to choose sequenced. Questions in the interview schedule are between tworesponse alternative. 3. Prepare a cover letter and brief structured and well sequenced, consistent → Example: Have you ever been introduction, stating the purpose of the with problems raised in the study. pregnant? ( )yes ( )no study, the importance of the respondents` 2. Unstructured b) Multichotomous Items participation, the assurance of The interview guide is used for informal confidentiality of responses and the cut-off → Allow respondents to answer questions interviews. with a range of responses in a multiple date of retrieval of instruments. A Questions are so formed as to allow the choice test. personalize request and expression of researcher flexibility in questioning the → Example: How favorable is it to you to gratitude would enhance the interest of the subjects when the need arises. become pregnant at this time? ( ) very respondents to accomplish the questionnaire. Data from informal interviews need favorable ( ) Unfavorable ( ) Favorable 4. It is also vital to determine the general longer time to organize and analyze. ( ) Very ( ) Not sure Unfavorable content of the question needed to obtain TYPES OF QUESTIONS ASKED c) Fixed-alternative or Multiple Choice Items the desire information, the desired form of 1. Open-ended Respondents are allowed multiple response, and then choose the exact → Respondents are given enough response alternatives. These types of wording of the question arrange in proper flexibility to answer questions of specific questions are good when the possible sequence indicators on their own words other than replies are few and clear-cut. 5. Having made these determinations, the those listed in the questionnaire. d) Projective Questions researcher may then prepare the draft of → Most appropriate for exploratory Uses vague questions or stimulus & the instrument. research but is more difficult to attempts to project person’s attitudes from 6. Subject the draft to critical review by administer and analyze. the response. experts and pre-testing among selected 2. Closed-ended This technique uses word association and respondents from the target population fill-in-the- blank sentences. 16  Difficult to analyze & are better used for g) Checklist 5. The language used therein is appropriate exploratory research than for descriptive Also called “matrix questions,” items in to respondents` level of understanding; or experimental research. this instrument are presented in a two- 6. They are neatly printed or typed on clean, e) Cafeteria Questions dimensional pattern. quality paper; and Respondents are asked to respond Questions are written horizontally while 7. They should bear the researcher`s according to their own viewpoint. respondents` answers are written signature. Example: People have different views vertically. WAYS OF STATING RESEARCH QUESTIONS on “Family Planning”. Which of the Example: Below are some of FP practices 1. Questions should be stated in the following best represent your views? observed by people. Check w/c one of affirmative rather that in a negative ( ) FP is necessary to quality life. these practices you observe in your manner Example: Words such as “never” ( ) FP is immoral & should be totally family. Check the benefits derived from can be overlooked by the subjects who banned. the practice. might respond contrary to the intended ( ) FP has undesirable side effects that answers. suggest need for caution. 2. Questions should be naturally worded to ( ) FP has beneficial effects that merits avoid biased responses. Example: Do you its practice. believe that smoking is disgusting habit? ( ) FP is moral & should be practice. 3. Ambiguous questions must be avoided. Use f) Ranked-order Questions TYPES OF RESPONSE ERROR of words with multiple meaning may result A. Telescoping error in confused interpretation. Example: many, Respondents are asked to rank usually, always, large, sometimes, answers form “most” to “least” An error resulting from the tendency of regularly. “Do you always agree that birth important, reasonable, frequent, or people to remember events as occurring control devices prevent unwanted beneficial. more recently than they actually did pregnancy? Example: Why must FP be practiced? B. Recall loss 4. Double negative questions which are Rank your answers from the 1-most to This occurs when people forget that an difficult for respondents to answer are the 5-least reasonable. event occurred. likewise not advised. Example: Don’t you __ Limits maternal disabilities CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD QUESTIONS disagree with the idea that birth control is __ Gives parents more time to meet family 1. They should specifically answer the not unusual? needs research problems an focus only on the 5. Similarly, double barreled questions are __ Helps maintain financial viability of the variables of phenomenon under study; two questions stated as one could yield family 2. They are clearly and briefly stated; confusing answers. Example: Do you plan __ Affords more working hours for couples 3. They are objective and detached from the to get married and work as a staff nurse __ Ensures family capability to educate all researcher`s own judgment; upon graduation? the children in the future 4. The responses they contain are easy to interpret and tabulate; 17  A cover letter should go which the of the instrument before the actual THE PROCESS OF DATA COLLECTION questionnaire stating the purpose and the investigation is made NATURE OF DATA COLLECTION benefits the study can give to the CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING THE Instrument Precise respondents, the profession and to society 1. Reliability Systematic process itself 2. Validity Relevant to the research purpose or THE PILOT STUDY OR PRETEST OF 3. Efficiency specific objectives, questions or hypotheses INSTRUMENTS 4. Sensitivity of the study A pilot study is a smaller version of a 5. Objectivity Data collection – important part of proposed study and it is conducted to 6. Speed research because the conclusions of the refine the methodology. 7. Reactivity study are based on what the data reveal Researchers develop a pilot study in a 8. Simplicity 9. Meaningfulness The researcher must obtain permission manner similar to the proposed study using from the setting or agency where the study similar subjects, same setting, the same is to be conducted. treatment, and the same data collection Consent – obtained to indicate the and analysis techniques. willingness of the research subjects to Pilot study is also known as the Field Test or participate in the study Dry- Run. Ethics must always prevail in all research PURPOSES FOR CONDUCTING A FIELD TEST activities 1. A field test can determine feasibility of the TYPES OF DATA RESEARCH study. 1. Cross-sectional Data - current (present) 2. It can also validate the instrument for data; time frame is of short duration. measuring the variables being studied by 2. Retrospective Data – ex-post facto studies correlating these with outside criteria. events in the past; “after the fact” 3. The researcher can check the reliability the 3. Prospective Data - future data, instrument by comparing reactions of the Longitudinal studies (prospective & variables observed and manipulated. retrospective)– they extend over a long 4. It provides a “dry run” of the instrument to period of time insure its efficiency and effectiveness. CATEGORIES OF DATA COLLECTION 5. It helps insure the that the researcher is 1. Primary Data Collection using correct language. → researcher personally collects data from 6. It enables the researcher to access and actual respondents using methods such as evaluate study procedures. interviews and questionnaires. 7. After the pre-test, the researcher can make revision on the content and structure 18  → may be qualitative in nature usually in 3. The variables, its definition and TWO METHODS OF OBSERVATIONS the form of words measurement; A. Structured Observations → may be quantitative in nature usually in 4. Sampling units to be included such as type, → Done when the researcher has prior the form of numbers number, and location; knowledge of the phenomenon of interest. 2. Secondary Data Collection 5. Amount of time available within which to → The behavior checklist may help indicate → uses data that was collected for another complete the study; and the frequency of the subjects’ observed purpose like patient’s medical records, 6. Adequacy of resources available to pursue behavior. patient satisfaction surveys, the study. B. Unstructured Observations organizational business reports, and METHOD OF COLLECTING DATA → Researcher attempts to describe the government databases. USE OF ALREADY EXISTING OR AVAILABLE events or behavior w/ no preconceived DATA ideas of what will be seen or observed. → easier to collect and gather than primary data → pertinent reports and other documents of → Requires high degree of attention STEPS IN DATA COLLECTION an institution CATEGORIES OF INFORMATION GATHERED A. Raw data from basic documents such as THRU OBSERVATIONS: records of patients admission, birth dates, 1. Characteristics, attitudes and conditions of & discharges the subjects. e.x: alopecia, pressure of B. Tabular data indicating number of patients edema DATA PHASES admitted or discharged by year or month, 2. Verbal communication The Data Phase of the Research Process or total number of deliveries , surgeries or 3. Non-verbal communication such as facial involves major decisions, as follows the workload of the nurses. expression, posture, and gestures 1. The target population must be defined; USE OF OBSERVERS’ DATA 4. Patients’ activities such as eating, sleeping, 2. The method of selecting individuals from → gathered through actual observation and ambulating among others. the target population must be determined; recording of events 5. Skill in task performance such as deep 3. The method of collecting the data must be → For ethical reasons, the subjects must be breathing exercises and crutch walking specified such as the use of already informed that they are being observed. 6. Environmental conditions such as cleanliness, existing data; and Types of Observers: congestion, barriers, set up noise level 4. The way in which data are to be processed → Non-Participant Observer DISADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATIONS: should be explained.( manual or computer)  Overt non-participant observer 1. The researcher has to wait until expected ELEMENTS TO CONSIDER IN DATA  Covert non- participant observer -may event occurs; COLLECTION not be ethical 2. May be biased because the presence of 1. The Nature of research problem; → Participant Observer: the observer may influence the subjects’ 2. The design of the study (experimental or  Overt responses or behavior; nonexperimental);  Covert 3. Extensive training is needed by the observers; 19 4. Data from two or more observers may This employs a set of principles for contradict; collecting data on observable human 5. Observers may become personally activities. involved with the subjects; and Has high value in nursing since the data is 6. The observers may limit their range of based on actual incidents & is not merely observations by situating themselves in only hypothetical. one position. It is flexible to examine interpersonal THE USE OF SELF RECORDING OR THE communication skills. REPORTING APPROACH Researcher develops a codebook to define Uses a specially prepared document data before initiating data collection. intended to collect data called instruments. Coding is the process of transforming data The method describes tools, devices, tests into numerical symbols that can be easily and other measures used in data collection. entered in the computer. It explains in detail how these are applied and validated. USE OF DELPHI TECHNIQUE Originally conceived as a way to obtain opinion of experts w/o necessarily bringing them together face to face. Uses a series of questionnaires to gather a consensus of opinions & information from a group of experts. The process continues until a consensus is reached. TYPES OF DELPHI TECHNIQUE BY BENNER & KETEFIAN: Classic Delphi Modified Delphi Policy Delphi Real-time Delphi E-delphi CRITICAL INCIDENT TECHNIQUE 20