NCM 111-A Nursing Research 1 (Lecture) PDF

NCM 111-A | Nursing Research 1 (Lecture) Unit 5: Designing and Planning Phase Bulacan State University - College of Nursing Bachelor of Science in Nursing 3B | 3rd Year – 1st Sem Prepared By: Neo Liwanag | Reminder: Print at your own discretion. Selecting a Research Design...

NCM 111-A | Nursing Research 1 (Lecture) Unit 5: Designing and Planning Phase Bulacan State University - College of Nursing Bachelor of Science in Nursing 3B | 3rd Year – 1st Sem Prepared By: Neo Liwanag | Reminder: Print at your own discretion. Selecting a Research Design o Educational materials (e.g., brochures, pamphlets, videos). Overall plan for obtaining answers to the research o Workshops or training sessions. questions. o Interactive sessions or community events. Quantitative designs tend to be structured and VI. Delivery Methods controlled, with the goal of minimizing bias. Describe how the intervention will be delivered, Architectural backbone of the study. including the use of in-person sessions, online Developing Protocols for the Intervention platforms, or a combination of both. VII. Delivery Methods In experimental research, researchers introduce an VIII. Ethical Considerations intervention. IX. Statistical Analysis An intervention protocol for the study must be X. Conclusion developed, specifying exactly what the intervention will entail (e.g., who will administer it, over how long a period will the treatment last, and so on) and what Identifying the Population the comparative condition will be. In non-experimental research, this step is not For those conducting quantitative research, it's necessary essential to define the specific traits that participants should have. Intervention Protocols In other words, they need to pinpoint the group I. Introduction they'll be studying. This group, known as the population, consists of all individuals or items that Briefly explain the purpose of the intervention. share certain common features (this refers to the Provide a rationale for the study, emphasizing the "P" element in PICO questions). importance of responsible antibiotic use. II. Intervention Description PICO Questions Describe the content and of format. Who will be responsible for administering the 1. Population (P) project? What is the demographic and health status of the III. Duration and Frequency target population in Plaridel, Bulacan in terms of Outline the timeline of the intervention, specifying: antibiotic use? o Start and end dates of the study. 2. Intervention (I) o Frequency of educational sessions or What is the impact of the antibiotic-stewardship activities (e.g., weekly, monthly, etc.). program-based educational campaign in Plaridel, o Estimated duration of each session or Bulacan? activity. How does participation in the educational IV. Target Audience campaign affect the knowledge, practices, and Clearly define the target population or audience for attitudes of the population regarding antibiotic the intervention, such as age groups, use? demographics, and any specific characteristics. Explain how participants will be recruited or selected. V. Intervention Components Detail the key components of the educational campaign, including:  before surgery and the percentage of patients who are stressed o What factors diminish or increase a patient’s 3. Comparison (C) stress? Are nurses’ behaviors related to a What is the impact of the antibiotic-stewardship patient’s stress level? program-based educational campaign in Plaridel, o Qualitative methods are especially useful Bulacan? Explanatory Study 4. Outcome (O) What are the changes in knowledge levels Search for causal explanations and are much regarding antibiotics before and after the more rigorous. educational campaign? Usually experimental How does participation in the educational Enough knowledge exists about the variables. campaign influence antibiotic usage practices? EXPLORATORY, DESCRIPTIVE AND EXPLANATORY STUDIES The amount of existing knowledge about the variable(s) can be used as the criterion for classifying research as exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory. Research Methodology Descriptive Study is the entire strategy for the study (from Phenomena are described or the relationships identification of the problem to final plans for data between variables are examined. collection). Fain (2013) When enough information exists → descriptive It discusses the steps and procedures that you will studies may be conducted in which hypotheses use in conducting your research. are tested. Examples: Descriptive Study Research Design o For example, researchers might be interested in describing the relationship between fatigue Outline/plan for a research study. and psychological distress in HIV patients. It is the blueprint for conducting a study (Fain, o Kim (2020) conducted a descriptive 2013). correlational study of nurses from 27 Korean This section describes the specific research hospitals to examine relationships among approach you will use in the study (Quali or stress, emotional labor strategies (e.g., Quanti? Experimental? Phenomenology? etc.) regulation and suppression of felt emotions), It is concerned with the type of data that will be and burnout. collected, and the means used to obtain the needed data. Exploratory Study It must be appropriate to test the study Conducted when little is known about the hypothesis(es) or answer the research phenomenon of interest. question(s). Findings would add to the body of knowledge. A flexible approach rather than a structured approach to data collection. Hypotheses are generally not appropriate. Examples: Exploratory Study o For example, a descriptive quantitative study of patients’ preoperative stress might document the degree of stress patients feel NCM 111-A | Nursing Research 1 (Lecture) Unit 5: Designing and Planning Phase Bulacan State University - College of Nursing Bachelor of Science in Nursing 3B | 3rd Year – 1st Sem Prepared By: Neo Liwanag | Reminder: Print at your own discretion. Experimental Design Experimental Research is concerned with cause- External Validity – the degree to which study and-effect relationships. results can be generalized to other people and Cause-and-effect relationships occur when one other settings. object or event makes some other object or event o With what degree of confidence can the happen. study findings be transferred from the All experimental studies involve manipulation or sample to the entire population? control of the independent variable (cause) and o Will these study findings hold true with measurement of the dependent variable(effect). other groups in other times and places? In an experimental (or randomized controlled trial, As the researcher attempts to control for internal RCT), researchers are active agents validity, external validity is usually decreased The controlled experiment is considered to be the The researcher must decide how to balance gold standard for yielding reliable evidence about internal and external validity. causes and effects. THREATS TO INTERNAL VALIDITY Experimental Design (cont.) 1. Selection Bias In an experiment (or randomized controlled trial, Threat occurs when study results are attributed to RCT), researchers are active agents. experimental treatment or the researcher’s The controlled experiment is the gold standard for manipulation of the IV when, in fact, the results are yielding reliable evidence about causes and effects. related to subject differences before the IV was Extraneous Variables (confounding/ manipulated. intervening variables) - variables the researcher How to control? is unable to control, or does not choose to control, o Randomly assign subjects to experimental and which can influence the results of a study. comparison groups. o The researcher acknowledges these study 2. History limitations in the discussion section. Threat occurs when some events besides the o In experimental studies, the extraneous experimental treatment occur during the course of a variables, or competing explanations for study, and this event influences the DV. the results, are labeled threats to internal How to control? and external validity (Campbell & Stanley, o Inclusion of at least one simultaneous control or 1963). comparison group in a study. Internal Validity – the degree to which changes in o Random assignment of subjects to groups. the DV (effect) and can be attributed to the IV 3. Maturation (cause). It becomes a threat when changes that occur within o Threats to internal validity are factors other the subjects during an experimental study influence than the IV that influence the DV. the study results. o These factors constitute rival explanations People may become older, taller, or sleepier, from the or competing hypotheses that might time of the pretest to the post-test. explain the study results. How to control? o A comparison group of similar children helps control for this threat. 4. Testing Testing threat may occur in studies where a pretest is THREATS TO EXTERNAL VALIDITY given or where subjects have knowledge of baseline data. 1. Hawthorne Effect Testing refers to the influence of the pretest or Effect occurs when study participants respond in a knowledge of baseline data on the post-test scores. certain manner because they are aware that they are o Subjects may remember the answers they put on being observed. the pretest and put the same answers on the This term came as the result of the studies on worker posttest. productivity at the Hawthorne plant of the Western 5. Instrumental Change Electric Company. Considered when mechanical instruments or judges How to control? are used in the pretest and posttest. o By using a double-blind experiment neither the Instrumentation change involves the difference researcher nor the research participants are aware between the pretest and post-test measurement of which participants are in the experimental group caused by a change in the accuracy of the instrument and which participants are in the control group. or the judges’ ratings, rather than as a result of the 2. Experimenter Effect experimental treatment. Occurs when researcher characteristics or behaviors How to control? influence subject behaviors (facial expression, age, o Training sessions for judges and trial runs to check gender, etc.). for fatigue factors may be control for o Experimenter effect – experimental research; instrumentation changes. o Rosenthal Effect – nonexperimental studies; o If mechanical instruments are used, these The Rosenthal effect is used to indicate the influence instruments should be checked for their accuracy of an interviewer on respondents’ answers. throughout the study. Researcher characteristics such as gender, dress, and 6. Mortality type of jewelry may influence study participants’ Occurs when the subjects do not complete a study; answers to questions in nonexperimental studies. Attrition or dropout may occur in any research study. 3. Reactive Effects of the Pre-test The observed effects may occur because the subjects Occur when subjects have been sensitized to the who dropped out of a particular group are different treatment because they took the pretest. This from those who remained in the study. sensitization may affect the posttest results. Note: For ethical reasons, participants can never be People might not respond to the treatment in the same forced to remain in a study. manner if they had not received a pretest. Hudson and Llosa (2015) suggested that subjects drop out of studies due to lack of interest and motivation. How to control? o Establish a relationship with the study participants and help them recognize the importance of their continued participation.  2. At least one experimental and one comparison group are included in the study – COMPARISON/CONTROL GROUP Symbolic Presentation of Research Designs 3. Subjects are randomly assigned to either the experimental or the comparison group. – Based on the notation scheme of Campbell and RANDOM ASSIGNMENT Stanley (1963) o R = random assignment of subjects to groups Manipulation o X = experimental treatment or intervention The first criterion for a true experimental design is o O = observation or measurement of dependent manipulation of the IV. variable It involves doing something to study participants Xs and Os on one line apply to a specific group. (Polit and Beck, 2018). The time sequence of events is read from left to Experimenters manipulate the IV by administering right. treatment (intervention) to some people and If an X appears first and then an O, this means the withholding it from others, or administering a intervention occurred first then an observation was different treatment. made Example: If a subscript appears after an X or O (X1; X2; O1; O2), the numbers indicate the first treatment, second treatment, first observation, second observation, and so forth. Example: Comparison / Control Group The second criterion for a true experimental design is the use of a comparison or control group. A control group usually indicates a group in an experimental study that does not receive o This example has two groups, both of which experimental treatment. were formed through random assignment (R) In nursing research, the withholding of a treatment of subjects to groups. may be unethical. o Both groups in the example were measured or Example: given a pretest (O1) on the phenomenon of interest (DV). The experimental group was exposed to an experimental treatment (IV); the comparison group was not exposed to this treatment. Then, both groups were again Control Conditions: measured or given the posttest (O2) on the o “Usual care/ standard methods of care” - the phenomenon of interest (DV). usual procedures used to care for patients. TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS o An alternative treatment (e.g., music vs. massage); the risk is that the results will be Those in which the researcher has a great deal of inconclusive because it may be difficult to detect control over the research situation. differential effects of two good treatments. Threats to the internal validity of the study are o A placebo or pseudo intervention presumed minimized. to have no therapeutic value. Only with the use of true experimental designs may ▪ Placebo effects—changes in the DV causality be inferred with any degree of confidence. attributable to the placebo condition— A true experimental design has three criteria: because of participants’ expectations of 1. The researcher manipulates the experimental benefits/ harms). variable(s) – MANIPULATION o An attention control condition (the control group gets attention but not the intervention’s active ingredients)  o Delayed treatment/Wait-list control group- o If the groups were not equivalent, the posttest control group members are wait-listed and scores may be adjusted statistically to control exposed to the intervention at a later point. for the initial differences between the two groups that were reflected in the pretest scores. This design controls all threats to internal validity. Disadvantage: the external threat of the reactive Random Assignment effects of the pretest The third criterion for true experimental studies is the random assignment of subjects to groups. 2. Posttest Only Control Group Design Random assignment ensures that each subject has also known as after-only design: an equal chance of being placed into any of the a) Subjects are randomly assigned to groups, groups in an experimental study. b) The experimental group receives the Researchers typically use computers to perform the experimental treatment and the comparison randomization. group receives the routine treatment or no Random assignment concerns the equality of groups treatment, and; in experimental studies. The random assignment of c) A posttest is given to both groups. subjects to groups eliminates selection bias as a threat to the internal validity of the study Although randomization is the preferred method for equalizing groups, there is no guarantee that the groups will be equal. Random assignment versus random sampling. Some researchers argue that pretesting is not o Random assignment - is a signature of an always necessary, especially when experimental design (RCT). If subjects are not randomization is used. randomly assigned to intervention groups, then Easier to carry out and superior to the pretest- the design is not a true experiment. posttest design o Random sampling - refers to a method of The researcher does not have to be concerned selecting people for a study. Random sampling with the reactive effects of the pretest on the is not a signature of an experimental design. In posttest. fact, most RCTs do not involve random This design should be used when it is not sampling. possible to administer a pretest or when it would not make sense to administer a pretest. TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS (cont.) 3. Solomon Four Group Design 1. Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design a) subjects are randomly assigned to one of the four “before-and-after design”, the most frequently groups; used experimental design. In this design: b) two of the groups, experimental group 1 and a) The subjects are randomly assigned to comparison group 1, are pretested; groups c) two of the groups, experimental group 1 and b) A pretest is given to both groups experimental group 2, receive the experimental c) The experimental group receives the treatment, whereas two of the groups, experimental treatment, and the comparison comparison group 1 and comparison group 2, group receives the routine treatment or no receive the routine treatment or no treatment; and treatment and; d) a posttest is given to all four groups. d) a posttest is given to both groups. The researcher is able to determine if the groups were equal before the treatment was administered  It involves an intervention (just like true experiments); however, quasi-experimental designs lack randomization, the signature of a true experiment. Advantages: By conducting experiments with naturally occurring groups, the real world is more closely approximated than when subjects are randomly assigned to groups (practicality). Considered to be the most prestigious experimental design because it minimizes threats Disadvantages: It is weaker because, without to internal and external validity. randomization, it cannot be assumed that the experimental and comparison groups are equivalent This design not only controls for all of the threats at the outset. to internal validity, but also controls for the o Causal inferences cannot be made as reactive effects of the pretest. readily as with RCTs Advantages Of Experiments RCTs are the “gold standard” for intervention studies 1. Non-equivalent Control Group Design (therapy questions) because they yield the most persuasive evidence about the effects of an is similar to the pretest-posttest control group design except there is no random assignment of intervention. subjects to the experimental and comparison The great strength of experiments lies in the groups. confidence with which causal relationships can be o Example: The effect of a chair yoga inferred. Through the controls imposed by intervention (I) for older people (P) on quality intervening, comparing, and—especially— of life (O). randomizing, alternative explanations can often be Threats to internal validity controlled are history, ruled out. testing, maturation, and instrumentation Disadvantages Of Experiments change. The biggest threat to internal validity: selection Many interesting variables simply are not amenable bias to intervention. Second, many variables could technically—but not Note: A statistical test called analysis of covariance ethically—be experimentally varied. (ANCOVA) can be used to help control for differences that Sometimes, RCTs are not feasible because of might have existed, through chance, between the practical issues. experimental and control groups at the beginning of the study. Note: How can you tell if a study is experimental? If the article says that the study purpose was to test the effects 2. Time Series Design of an intervention AND if participants were put into groups The researcher periodically observes or at random. measures the subjects. The experimental treatment is administered between two QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS observations. also called trials without randomization in the medical literature, are those in which there is either no comparison group or subjects are not randomly assigned to groups. The researcher uses existing, or intact, groups for The greatest threats to validity: history and the experimental and comparison groups. testing.  A group of patients with diabetes could be given a pretest of their diabetes knowledge (O1). This group would then attend a diabetic education class (X) and be posttested (O2) at the end of the class. Threats to internal validity: history, maturation, testing, and instrumentation change. o Because of the existence of a pretest and posttest, testing and instrumentation change now become threats to internal validity. PRE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS NONEXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS It is the name applied by Campbell and Stanley (1963) to experimental designs that are considered (termed as “observational” in medical literature) very weak and in which the researcher has little many times, experimental research cannot be control over the research. conducted with human beings because of ethical 1. One Shot Case Study reasons. A single group is exposed to experimental All nonexperimental research is descriptive treatment and observed after the treatment. because there is no manipulation or control of variables, and the researcher can describe the phenomenon only as it exists. Although the researcher cannot talk about a cause-and-effect relationship in nonexperimental A group of patients with diabetes might attend a research, it is important to obtain valid study results diabetic education class (X) and be tested on in this type of research. their knowledge of diabetes (O) after the class is 1. Survey Studies completed. are investigations in which self-report data are This design does not call for any comparisons to collected from samples with the purpose of be made. describing populations on some variable(s) of Threats to internal validity: history, maturation, interest. and selection bias. The probability of sampling techniques and The threats of testing and instrumentation change adequate sample sizes are very important in would not be applicable in this design. survey research. Weakest of all the experimental designs A nurse researcher might use a survey to gather because it controls for no threats to internal data on the health needs of clients, their sleep validity patterns, or their perceptions of the nursing care 2. One Group Pretest-Posttest Design they have received. Provides a comparison between a group of The most common data-collection techniques subjects before and after the experimental used in survey research are questionnaires and treatment. interviews.  Advantages: o are reported through various statistics such o Ability to provide accurate information on as the Pearson’s product-moment populations while using relatively small correlation (more commonly called the samples. Pearson r) and the Spearman rho. o The large amount of data that can be o A positive relationship (or direct obtained rather quickly and with minimal relationship) means that as the value of cost. one variable increases, the value of the Disadvantages: other variable increases. o Self-report responses may be unreliable o A negative relationship (inverse because people may provide socially relationship) means that as the value of acceptable responses. one variable increases, the value of the other variable decreases. o Identification of an independent and a dependent variable may not be appropriate in some correlational studies. ▪ A correlation between age (IV) and assertiveness levels DV)”. Advantages: Can offer an efficient way to collect large amounts of data about a problem. (by doing this, many relationships could be discovered in a short time) Disadvantages: They do not yield persuasive evidence for causal inferences. This is not a problem when the aim is description, but correlational studies are often undertaken to 2. Correlational Studies discover causes. Yet correlational studies are The researcher examines the strength of susceptible to faulty interpretation because relationships between variables by groups being compared have formed through determining how changes in one variable are self-selection. associated with changes in another variable. 3. Comparative Studies A correlation indicates the extent to which one Examine the differences between intact groups on variable (X) is related to another variable (Y). As some dependent variable of interest. X increases, does Y increase or decrease? There is no manipulation of the IV (this design is In a simple correlational study, one group of used when manipulation of the independent subjects is measured on two variables (X and Y) variable may not be possible). to determine if there is a relationship between Classified as: retrospective or prospective. these variables. a.) Retrospective Studies A famous research dictum: correlation does not The DV (effect) is identified in the present (a prove causation. disease condition, for example), and an attempt is The magnitude and direction of the made to determine the IV (cause of the disease) relationship between two variables is indicated that occurred in the past. by a correlation coefficient. Are frequently called ex post facto→ data are o Correlation coefficients→ may be positive collected after the fact. Variations in the IV are (+) or negative (-) and range from -1.00 studied after the variations have occurred, rather (perfect negative correlation) to 1.00 than at the time of the occurrence. (perfect positive correlation). o If the correlation coefficient has no sign in A retrospective study starts by examining an effect front of it (e.g.,.80), a positive relationship and then looks back in time to determine the cause; exists. A negative correlation coefficient is b.) Prospective Studies preceded by a negative sign (e.g., -.80). (cohort design), the IV or presumed cause (high o A correlation coefficient of.00 indicates cholesterol blood levels, for example) is identified at there is no relationship between variables the present time, then subjects are followed in the  future to observe the DV (incidence of coronary A challenge in longitudinal studies is the loss of artery disease, for example). participants (attrition) over time. Experimental studies are inherently prospective Not all longitudinal studies are prospective because because the researcher institutes intervention and sometimes, IV occurred even before the initial wave subsequently examines its effect. of data collection. And not all prospective studies It starts with the determination of a cause and then are longitudinal in the classic sense. looks forward in time to determine the effect on o For example, an experimental study that subjects. collects data at 1, 2, and 4 hours after an Prospective studies may use an experimental intervention would be prospective but not approach, whereas retrospective studies would longitudinal (i.e., data are not collected never use this type of design. over a long time period). In prospective studies, the researcher might manipulate the IV, or the cause, then observe study participants in the future for the DV, or the effect. Prospective studies are costly, and subject dropout may occur. These types of studies are less common than retrospective studies. TIME DIMENSION IN RESEARCH DESIGN 1. Cross-Sectional Design Examine the differences between intact groups on some dependent variable of interest. Retrospective studies are usually cross-sectional It can be used to study time-related phenomena, but they are less persuasive than longitudinal designs. Cross-sectional designs are economical, but they pose problems for inferring changes over time. 2. Longitudinal Design Involve collecting data multiple times over an extended period. Such designs are useful for studying changes over time and for establishing the sequencing of phenomena, which is a criterion for inferring causality. In nursing research, longitudinal studies are often follow-up studies of a clinical population, undertaken to assess the subsequent status of people with a specified condition or who received an intervention. Researchers must decide the number of data collection points and the time intervals between them.  Reflexivity involves the researcher’s critical self- awareness and acknowledgment of how their own identity, values, and experiences might influence the research process. Researchers often maintain a reflexive journal to document their thoughts, feelings, biases, and decisions throughout the study. The journal serves as a tool for the researcher to critically reflect on their role and potential biases, helping them to actively manage and account for their influence on the research process. Ethnography Ethnography is concerned with understanding and interpreting cultural behaviors of groups through fieldwork and ethnographic writing. It involves both a process (fieldwork) and a product (ethnographic text). Culture itself is not directly visible or tangible; it is constructed and inferred from the behaviors, words, and artifacts of the group being studied. PART II: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS Phenomenology Types of Ethnography Phenomenology has its origins in the philosophical Macroethnography: Broadly defined cultural work of Husserl and Heidegger and focuses on studies, such as examining a culture in an entire understanding human lived experiences. village. It is an approach aimed at exploring what people’s Microethnography/Focused Ethnography: In- life experiences are like and the significance they depth studies of smaller cultural units or specific hold. activities, like how nurses interact with children in Researchers using this approach ask questions emergency departments. such as: o Example: A focused ethnography by 1. What is the core essence of this Higginbottom et al. (2014) examining the health phenomenon as experienced by individuals? and social care needs of Somali refugees with 2. How do individuals interpret the meaning of visual impairments in the UK. this phenomenon in their lives? Emic vs. Etic Perspectives Descriptive vs. Interpretive Phenomenology Emic Perspective: The insider’s view, Descriptive Phenomenology: Focused on representing how members of the culture describing lived experiences without interpretation. understand and describe their world. Interpretive Phenomenology (Hermeneutics): Etic Perspective: The outsider’s interpretation, Focused on interpreting and understanding lived which represents how researchers perceive and experiences. describe cultural phenomena. Ethnographers aim to uncover the emic Reflexivity perspective and reveal tacit knowledge, which is  deeply embedded in cultural experiences, often Theoretical Sampling in Grounded Theory unnoticed or unspoken by members of the culture. Theoretical sampling involves collecting, analyzing, Variants of Ethnography and refining data iteratively, based on emerging concepts, to develop and saturate the theory. Ethnonursing Research: Studies nursing care Unlike in phenomenology, where sampling is often behaviors and processes within specific cultures, predefined based on participant characteristics that guided by Leininger's theory. align with the study’s focus, theoretical sampling o Example: Moss (2014) explored the healthcare evolves as the study progresses. beliefs of rural Ecuadorians. It is guided by the need to explore categories further, Institutional Ethnography: Analyzes institutional clarify relationships, and ensure the grounded theory processes and social relations, often aiming for accounts for all variations and dimensions of the organizational change. phenomena under study. o Example: Rankin (2015) studied managerial strategies affecting nurses' work. Case Study Research Autoethnography: Involves self-reflection and analysis of the researcher's own culture or group, Case studies involve in-depth investigations that offering unique insights due to preexisting trust but provide detailed, descriptive information about the posing challenges in maintaining objectivity. entity under study. o Example: Whybrow (2013) explored mental The central focus of a case study is on the case health nurses’ experiences in combat zones. itself, rather than a specific variable or phenomenon. It aims to understand why an entity thinks, behaves, or develops in a certain way by exploring both present states and past experiences. Grounded Theory Grounded Theory was developed in the 1960s by Types of Case Study Designs (Yin, 2014) Glaser and Strauss as a systematic qualitative o Single-Case Studies: research method. It emerged from studies like their ▪ Holistic: Examines the global nature of the research on dying in hospitals (Glaser & Strauss, case. 1965). ▪ Embedded: Involves multiple units of It has contributed to the development of many analysis within the case. middle-range theories, especially in nursing. o Multiple-Case Studies: It aims to understand actions within a specific area ▪ Holistic: Examines more than one case in by focusing on participants' main concerns and the its entirety. basic social processes (BSP) they use to resolve ▪ Embedded: Studies multiple units of these concerns. analysis across several cases. Grounded theory identifies core variables, which are key concepts that explain how participants address Purpose and Applications their main concerns. Useful for exploring under-researched phenomena. It uses conceptualization to generate categories and integrate them into a substantive theory. Can generate hypotheses for future studies. These categories and theories are abstracted from Helps clarify concepts and reveal unsuspected participants' behaviors, actions, and meanings. relationships.  Provides rich, detailed insights into specific cases, Example: Exploring the impact of the COVID-19 which can help challenge existing generalizations. pandemic on global healthcare systems. Example o To investigate how significant events, like o McKenna et al. (2014) conducted a case wars, pandemics, or healthcare reforms, study of service delivery in a secure have influenced public health, patient care, inpatient mental health service in Australia, or nursing roles. involving interviews with various stakeholders and examining differences in their perceptions. Narrative Analyses It treats the story itself as the primary object of inquiry. It examines how individuals construct and convey their life experiences and the meanings they attach to them. It emphasizes the broad contours of narratives rather than breaking them into smaller components, maintaining the story's integrity. Historical Research Involves collecting qualitative data to understand past occurrences. It aims to explore, describe, and understand phenomena within a historical context. It is used by nurses to investigate events and developments that have shaped healthcare practices over time. Example: Studying the evolution of nursing roles, such as the emergence of nurse practitioners or changes in nursing education. o To trace the development of healthcare policies, procedures, and practices over time.