Classical Greece Module 5 PDF

Module 5 Classical Greece Essential Question Why might the modern world be interested in the history, culture, and civilizations of ancient Greece? About the Photo: The Temple of Hera II...

Module 5 Classical Greece Essential Question Why might the modern world be interested in the history, culture, and civilizations of ancient Greece? About the Photo: The Temple of Hera II In this module you will learn about the history and culture of classical in Paestum, Italy, is a beautifully preserved Greece and its impact on the modern world. example of classical Greek architecture. Its columns and pedestals demonstrate the sense of balance and symmetry typical of the What You Will Learn … classical Greek style. Lesson 1: Cultures of the Mountains and the Sea........... 148 The Big Idea The roots of Greek culture are based on interaction among the Mycenaean, Minoan, and Dorian cultures. Explore ONLINE! Lesson 2: Warring City-States....................... 153 The Big Idea The growth of city-states in Greece led to the VIDEOS, including... development of several political systems, including democracy. Origins of Western Culture Lesson 3: Democracy and Greece’s Golden Age............ 163 Mysteries of Troy The Big Idea Democratic principles flourished during Greece’s golden Battle of Marathon age. Lesson 4: Achievements of Greek Culture............... 168 Document-Based Investigations The Big Idea Classical culture flourished during Greece’s golden age. Graphic Organizers Lesson 5: Alexander the Great....................... 176 The Big Idea Alexander the Great conquered Persia and Egypt and Interactive Games extended his empire to the Indus River in northwest India. Image Carousel: Festivals and Sports Lesson 6: Hellenistic Culture........................ 182 The Big Idea Hellenistic culture, a blend of Greek and other Animation: Archimedean Screw influences, flourished throughout Greece, Egypt, and Asia. 146 Module 5 Timeline of Events 2000–300 BC Explore ONLINE! Greece World 2000 BC 2000 BC Minoan civilization prospers on Crete 1700 BC Hammurabi issues code of laws. 1500 BC Mycenaean culture thrives on 1472 BC Hatshepsut, Greek mainland. woman pharaoh, begins her reign. 1200 BC Trojan War takes place. 1027 BC Zhou Dynasty begins in China. 850 BC Assyrians expand their empire. 750 BC Greek city- states flourish. 479 BC Greece triumphs 500 BC Zapotec of Mexico in Persian Wars. build Monte Albán. 334 BC Alexander starts to build his empire. 321 BC Chandragupta founds Mauryan Empire in India. 300 BC Classical Greece 147  Lesson 1 Cultures of the Mountains and the Sea Setting the Stage The Big Idea In ancient times, Greece was not a united country. It was The roots of Greek culture are a collection of separate lands where Greek-speaking based on interaction among the people lived. By 3000 BC, the Minoans lived on the large Mycenaean, Minoan, and Greek island of Crete. The Minoans created an elegant Dorian cultures. civilization that had great power in the Mediterranean Why It Matters Now world. At the same time, people from the plains along The seeds of much of Western the Black Sea and Anatolia migrated and settled in cultural heritage were planted mainland Greece. during this time period. Key Terms and People Mycenaean Trojan War Dorian Homer epic myth The palace in the Minoan city of Knossos on the island of Crete served as a center for economic, government, and religious activity. Geography Shapes Greek Life Ancient Greece consisted mainly of a mountainous penin- sula jutting out into the Mediterranean Sea. It also included about 2,000 islands in the Aegean (ih JEE uhn) and Ionian (eye OH nee uhn) seas. Lands on the eastern edge of the Aegean were also part of ancient Greece. The region’s physical geography directly shaped Greek traditions and customs. The Sea The sea shaped Greek civilization just as rivers shaped the ancient civilizations of Egypt, the Fertile Crescent, India, and China. In one sense, the Greeks did not live on a land but around a sea. Greeks rarely had to travel more than 85 miles to reach the coastline. The Aegean 148 Module 5  Sea, the Ionian Sea, and the neighboring Black Sea were important trans- portation routes for the Greek people. These seaways linked most parts of Greece. As the Greeks became skilled sailors, sea travel connected Greece with other societies. Sea travel and trade were also important because Greece lacked natural resources, such as timber, precious metals, and usable farmland. The Land Rugged mountains covered about three-fourths of ancient Greece. The mountain chains ran mainly from northwest to southeast along the Balkan Peninsula. Mountains divided the land into a number of different regions. This significantly influenced Greek political life. Instead of a single government, the Greeks developed small, independent com- munities within each little valley and its surrounding mountains. Most Greeks gave their loyalty to these local communities. In ancient times, the uneven terrain also made land transportation difficult. Of the few roads that existed, most were little more than dirt paths. It often took travelers several days to complete a journey that might take a few hours today. Much of the land itself was stony, and only a small part of it was arable, or suitable for farming. Tiny but fertile valleys covered about one-fourth of Greece. The small streams that watered these valleys were not suitable for large-scale irrigation projects. With so little fertile farmland or fresh water for irrigation, Greece was never able to support a large population. Historians estimate that no more than Farmable land in Greece was—and still a few million people lived in ancient Greece at any given time. Even this is—nestled into small small population could not expect the land to support a life of luxury. A valleys surrounded by desire for more living space, grassland for raising livestock, and adequate mountains. farmland may have been factors that motivated the Greeks to seek new sites for colonies. The Climate Climate was the third important environmental influence on Reading Check Greek civilization. Greece has a varied climate, with temperatures Analyze Causes In what ways did averaging 48 degrees Fahrenheit in the winter and 80 degrees Fahrenheit Greece’s location in the summer. In ancient times, these moderate temperatures supported by the sea and an outdoor life for many Greek citizens. Men spent much of their leisure its mountainous land affect its time at outdoor public events. They met often to discuss public issues, development? exchange news, and take an active part in civic life. Mycenaean Civilization Develops A large wave of Indo-Europeans migrated from the Eurasian steppes to Europe, India, and Southwest Asia. Some of the people who settled on the Greek mainland around 2000 BC were later known as Mycenaeans. The name came from their leading city, Mycenae (my SEE nee). Mycenae was located in southern Greece on a steep, rocky ridge and surrounded by a protective wall more than 20 feet thick. The fortified city of Mycenae could withstand almost any attack. From Mycenae, a warrior- king ruled the surrounding villages and farms. Strong rulers controlled the areas around other Mycenaean cities, such as Tiryns and Athens. These kings dominated Greece from about 1600 to 1100 BC. Classical Greece 149  Contact with Minoans Sometime after 1500 BC, through either trade or war, the Mycenaeans came into contact with the Minoan civilization. From their contact with the Minoans, the Mycenaeans saw the value of expanded seaborne trade. Mycenaean traders soon sailed throughout the eastern Mediterranean, making stops at Aegean islands, coastal towns in Anatolia, and ports in Syria, Egypt, Italy, and Crete. These transportation routes led to an exchange of ideas and technology. The Minoans also influenced the Myce­naeans in other ways. The Mycenaeans adapted the Minoan writing system to the Greek language and decorated vases with Minoan designs. The Minoan-influenced culture of Mycenae formed the core of Greek religious practice, art, politics, and literature. Indeed, Western civilization has its roots in these two early Mediterranean civilizations. The Trojan War During the 1200s BC, the Mycenaeans fought a ten-year war against Troy, an independent trading city located in Anatolia. According to legend, a Greek army besieged and destroyed Troy because a Trojan prince had kidnapped Helen, the beautiful wife of a Greek king. For many years, historians thought that the legendary stories told of the Trojan War were totally fictional. However, excavations conducted in northwestern Turkey during the 1870s by German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann suggested that the stories of the Trojan War might have been According to ancient Greek stories, the Greek army hid soldiers inside a hollow wooden horse as part of a plan to capture the legendary city of Troy. 150 Module 5 Document-Based Investigation Historical Source The Iliad “‘My dear husband, your warlike spirit will The Iliad tells the story of the last year of the Trojan be your death. You’ve no compassion for War. The heroes of the Iliad are warriors—the fierce your infant child, for me, your sad wife, Greek Achilles (uh KIHL eez) and the courageous and noble Hector of Troy. Near the end of the who before long will be your widow.... As epic, Achilles kills Hector in single combat, paving for me, it would be better, if I’m to lose you, the way for the Greeks’ ultimate victory over Troy. to be buried in the ground....’ In this dramatic excerpt, Hector’s wife begs him Great Hector... replied, ‘Wife, all this not to fight Achilles. Hector’s response to his wife concerns me, too. But I’d be disgraced, gives insight into the Greek heroic ideal of aretē dreadfully shamed... , if I should slink (ar uh TAY), meaning virtue and excellence. A Greek away from war, like a coward. [F]or I could display this ideal on the battlefield in combat have learned always to be brave, to fight or in athletic contests on the playing field. alongside Trojans at the front, striving to win great fame for my father, for myself.’” Analyze Historical Sources —Homer, the Iliad (translated by What does Hector say that demonstrates aretē? Ian Johnston) Reading Check based on real cities, people, and events. Further archaeological studies Analyze Effects conducted in the 20th century support Schliemann’s findings. Although How did contact with the Minoans affect the exact nature of the Trojan War remains unclear, this attack on Troy Mycenaean culture? was almost certainly one of the last Mycenaean battle campaigns. Greek Culture Declines Under the Dorians Not long after the Trojan War, Mycenaean civilization collapsed. Around 1200 BC, sea raiders attacked and burned many Mycenaean cities. Accord- ing to tradition, a new group of people, the Dorians (DAWR ee uhnz), moved into the war-torn countryside. The Dorians spoke a dialect of Greek and may have been distant ­relatives of the Bronze Age Greeks. The Dorians were far less advanced than the Mycenaeans. The economy collapsed and trade eventually came to a standstill soon after their arrival. Most important to historians, Greeks appear to have temporarily lost the art of writing during the Dorian Age. No written record exists from the 400-year period between 1150 and 750 BC. As a result, little is known about this period of Greek history. Epics of Homer Lacking writing, the Greeks of this time learned about their history through the spoken word. According to tradition, the greatest storyteller was a blind man named Homer. Little is known of his personal life. Some historians believe that Homer composed his epics, narrative poems celebrating heroic deeds, sometime between 750 and 700 BC. The Trojan War forms the backdrop for one of Homer’s great epic poems, the Iliad. Classical Greece 151  Greeks Create Myths The Greeks developed a rich set of myths, or traditional stories, about their gods. The works of Homer and another epic, Theogony by Hesiod, are the source of much of Greek mythology. Through the myths, the Greeks sought to understand the mysteries of nature and the power of human passions. Myths explained the changing of the ­seasons, for example. Greeks attributed human quali- ties, such as love, hate, and jealousy, to their gods. The gods quarreled and competed with one another con- stantly. However, unlike humans, the gods lived forever. Zeus, the ruler of the gods, lived on Mount Olympus This is a marble sculpture of with his wife, Hera. Hera was often Polyphemus—a cyclops, or one-eyed monster—who appears in another of ­jealous of Zeus’s relationships with Homer’s epics, the Odyssey. other women. Athena, goddess of Reading Check wisdom, was Zeus’s daughter and his favorite child. The Greeks thought of Synthesize Athena as the guardian of cities, especially of Athens, which was named What role did mythology play in in her honor. Athens would play a significant role in the development of Greek culture? Greek government. Lesson 1 Assessment 1. Organize Information Create a two-column graphic 3. Analyze Effects What impact did nearness to the sea organizer similar to the one shown. Fill it in with contri- have on the development of Greece? butions of the three cultures. 4. Synthesize What aspects of culture did the Mycenae- ans adopt from the Minoans? Culture Contribution 5. Evaluate Why were the epics of Homer important to Minoan Writing system; the Greeks of the Dorian period? pottery designs 6. Draw Conclusions How did the physical geography Mycenaean of Greece cause Greek-speaking peoples to develop separate, isolated communities? Dorian 7. Analyze Causes Other than the explanation offered in the legend, why do you think the Greeks went to war with Troy? 2. Key Terms and People For each key term or person in the lesson, write a sentence explaining its significance. 8. Make Inferences The Dorian period is often called Greece’s Dark Age. Why do you think this is so? 152 Module 5  Lesson 2 Warring City-States Setting the Stage The Big Idea During the Dorian period, Greek civilization experienced The growth of city-states in decline. However, two things changed life in Greece. Greece led to the development First, Dorians and Mycenaeans alike began to identify of several political systems, less with the culture of their ancestors and more with including democracy. the local area where they lived. Second, by the end Why It Matters Now of this period, the method of governing areas had Many political systems in today’s changed from tribal or clan control to more formal world mirror the varied forms governments—the city-states. of government that evolved in Greece. Rule and Order in Greek City-States Key Terms and People By 750 BC, the city-state, or polis, was the fundamental politi- polis cal unit in ancient Greece. A polis was made up of a city and its acropolis surrounding countryside, which included numerous villages. monarchy Most city-states controlled between 50 and 500 square miles aristocracy of territory. They were often home to fewer than 10,000 resi- oligarchy dents. At the agora, or marketplace, or on a fortified hilltop tyrant democracy called an acropolis (uh KRAHP uh lihs), citizens gathered to helot discuss city government. phalanx Persian Wars Atop the Acropolis of Athens sat the Parthenon (right), a temple built to honor the goddess Athena. The gateway (left) into the Acropolis was called the Propylaea. Classical Greece 153  Explore ONLINE! Greek City-States, 750 BC Black Sea THRACE Byzantium Sea of Marmara PI MAC E DONI A ND US Mt. Olympus MO 40°N UN THESSALY TA INS GREECE Ae ge Ionian an Mytilene Sea Se Phocaea Delphi Thebes Chalcis a Sardis Gu lf o f Cori Plataea nth Athens Ephesus Corinth Piraeus Olympia Argos IONIA Megara Peloponnesus Miletus Delos Messene Sparta 20°E Cyclades City-State Rhodes Major Religious Center 0 50 100 mi 25°E 0 50 100 km Crete Knossos 35°N Interpret Maps Mediterranean Sea 1. Region Based on this map, how would you describe the distribution of Greek city-states? 2. Location HMH About — HShowWH—2016 many miles was Athens from Sparta? MS_SNLESE668225_094M_K First proof 05/17/16 Greek Political Structures Greek city-states had many different forms of government. In some, a single person, called a king, ruled in HMHa government — HS WH—2016 MS_SNLESE668225_094M_L called a monarchy. Others adopted an aristocracy (ar ih STAHK ruh see), First proof 05/17/16 a government ruled by a small group of noble, landowning families. These HMH — HS WH—2016 HS_SNLESE668225_094M very rich families often gained political power after serving in a king’s First proof 05/17/16 military cavalry. Later, as trade expanded, a new class of wealthy mer- Second Proof 05/27/16 chants and artisans emerged in some cities. When these groups became dissatisfied with aristocratic rule, they sometimes took power or shared it with the nobility. They formed an oligarchy, a government ruled by a few powerful people. Tyrants Seize Power In many city-states, repeated clashes occurred between rulers and the common people. Powerful individuals, usually nobles or other wealthy citizens, sometimes seized control of the govern- ment by appealing to the common people for support. These rulers were Reading Check Form called tyrants. Unlike today, tyrants generally were not considered harsh Generalizations and cruel. Rather, they were looked upon as leaders who would work for What were the interests of the ordinary people. Once in power, for example, tyrants the common characteristics of often set up building programs to provide jobs and housing for their Greek city-states? supporters. 154 Module 5  Athens Builds a Limited Democracy The idea of representative government also began to take root in some city-states, particularly Athens. Like other city-states, Athens went through power struggles between rich and poor. However, Athenians avoided major political upheavals by making timely reforms. Athenian reformers moved toward democracy, rule by the people. In Athens, citi- zens participated directly in political decision making. Building Democracy The first step toward democracy came when a noble- man named Draco took power. In 621 BC, Draco developed a legal code that attempted to meet the needs of Athenian society. The code was based on the idea that all Athenians, rich and poor, were equal under the law. Solon Draco’s code dealt very harshly with criminals, making death the pun- ishment for practically every crime. It also upheld such practices as debt slavery, in which debtors worked as slaves to repay their debts. The harsh- ness of Draco’s laws did not resolve the tensions between rich and poor, however. It only made things worse. Social Structures More far-reaching democratic reforms were introduced by Solon (SOH luhn), who came to power in 594 BC. Stating that no citizen should own another citizen, Solon outlawed debt slavery. He organized all Athenian citizens into four social classes according to wealth. Only mem- bers of the top three classes could hold political office. However, all citi- zens, regardless of class, could participate in the Athenian assembly. Solon also introduced the legal concept that any citizen could bring charges against wrongdoers. Forms of Government Monarchy Aristocracy Oligarchy Direct Democracy State ruled by a king State ruled by State ruled by a small State ruled by its nobility group of citizens citizens Rule is hereditary Rule is hereditary and Rule is based on Rule is based on based on family ties, wealth or ability citizenship social rank, wealth Some rulers claim Social status and Ruling group Majority rule decides divine right wealth support controls military vote rulers’ authority Practiced in Mycenae Practiced in Athens Practiced in Sparta Practiced in Athens by 2000 BC prior to 594 BC by 500 BC by about 500 BC Interpret Charts 1. Summarize Which forms of government feature rule based on wealth or property ownership? 2. Synthesize In which form of government do citizens have the most power? Classical Greece 155  Even though Solon outlawed debt slavery, Athens continued to be a slave-owning society. Persians and other non-Greek peoples from neigh- boring lands were enslaved and put to work. So long as slaves toiled at labors such as working in silver mines, the Athenian aristocracy was afforded time to develop wealth and pursue cultural interests. Further Reforms Around 500 BC, the Athenian leader Cleisthenes (KLYS thuh neez) introduced further reforms. He broke up the power of the nobility by organizing citizens into ten groups based on where they lived rather than on their wealth. He also increased the power of the assembly by allowing all citizens to submit laws for debate and passage. Cleisthenes then created the Council of Five Hundred. This body proposed laws and counseled the assembly. Council members were chosen by lot, or at random. The reforms of Cleisthenes allowed Athenian citizens to participate in a limited democracy. However, citizenship was restricted to a relatively small number of Athenians. Only free adult males were considered citi- zens. Women, slaves, and for­eigners were excluded from citizenship and had few rights. Athenian Education For the most part, only the sons of wealthy families received formal education. Schooling began around the age of seven and largely prepared boys to be good citizens. They studied reading, grammar, Historical Source A Husband’s Advice In this excerpt from The Economist, the Greek historian Xenophon describes how a husband might respond to his wife’s question about how she could remain attractive: “I counseled her to oversee the baking woman as she made the bread; to stand beside the housekeeper as she measured out her stores; to go on tours of inspection to see if all things were in order as they should be. For, as it seemed to me, this would at once be walking exercise and supervision. And, as an excellent gymnastic, I recommended her to knead the dough and roll the paste; to shake the coverlets and make the beds; adding, if she trained herself in exercise of this sort she would enjoy her food, grow Analyze Historical Sources vigorous in health, and her complexion would in very 1. Make Inferences What is the husband truth be lovelier. The very look and aspect of the wife.” suggesting in his advice to his wife? 2. Synthesize How is the husband’s advice —Xenophon, The Economist, Book 10 (Translated by H. G. Dakyns) representative of Athenian attitudes toward women? 156 Module 5  poetry, history, mathematics, and music. Because citizens were expected to debate issues in the assembly, boys also received training in logic and pub- lic speaking. And since the Greeks believed that it was important to train and develop the body, part of each day was spent in athletic activities. When they got older, boys went to military school to help them prepare for another important duty of citizenship—defending Athens. Athenian girls did not attend school. Rather, they were educated at home by their mothers and other female members of the household. They learned about child-rearing, weaving cloth, preparing meals, manag- Reading Check ing the household, and other skills that helped them become good wives Contrast and mothers. Some women were able to take their education farther and How is Athenian learned to read and write. A few even became accomplished writers. Even democracy different from modern so, most women had very little to do with Athenian life outside the bound- American democracy? aries of family and home. Sparta Builds a Military State Located in the southern part of Greece known as the Peloponnesus (pehl uh puh NEE sus), Sparta was nearly cut off from the rest of Greece by the Gulf of Corinth. In outlook and values, Sparta contrasted sharply with the other city-states, Athens in particular. Instead of a democracy, Sparta built a military state. Sparta Dominates Messenians Around 725 BC, Sparta conquered the neighboring region of Messenia and took over the land. The Messenians became helots (HEHL uhts), peasants forced to stay on the land they worked. Each year, the Spartans demanded half of the helots’ crops. In about 650 BC, the Messenians, resentful of the Spartans’ harsh rule, revolted. The Spartans, who were outnumbered eight to one, just barely put down the revolt. Shocked at their vulnerability, they dedicated them- selves to making Sparta a strong city-state. Sparta’s Government and Society Spartan government had several branches. An assembly, which was composed of all Spartan citizens, elected officials and voted on major issues. The Council of Elders, made up of 30 older citizens, proposed laws on which the assembly voted. Five elected officials carried out the laws passed by the assembly. These men also controlled education and prosecuted court cases. In addition, two kings ruled over Sparta’s military forces. The Spartan social order consisted of several groups. The first were citizens descended from the original inhabitants of the region. This group included the ruling families who owned the land. A second group, nonciti- zens who were free, worked in commerce and industry. The helots, at the bottom of Spartan society, were little better than slaves. They worked in the fields or as house servants. Spartan Daily Life From around 600 until 371 BC, Sparta had the most powerful army in Greece. However, the Spartan people paid a high price for their military supremacy. All forms of individual expression were Classical Greece 157  History in Depth Festivals and Sports The ancient Greeks believed that strong healthy citizens helped strengthen the city-state. They often included sporting events in the festivals they held to honor their gods. The most famous sports festival was the Olympic games, held every four years. Records of Olympics winners started in 776 BC. At first, the festival lasted only one day and had only one contest, a race called the stade. Later, many other events were added, including a long-distance race, wrestling, the long jump, the javelin, and the discus throw. The Olympics was expanded to five days in 472 BC. WOMEN’S SPORTS ▲ Women had their own sports festival in ancient Greece. It was the festival devoted to Hera, the wife of Zeus. Like the Olympics, the Hera festival was held every four years. One of the main events was a foot race for unmarried women. DISCUS THROWER ▲ Ancient athletes, such as this discus thrower, would be considered amateurs today because they received no pay for competing. However, they trained rigorously for months at a time. Victors were given lavish gifts and were hailed as heroes. Many athletes competed full-time. MOUNT OLYMPUS ▲ The ancient Olympics honored Zeus, the father of all Greek gods and goddesses. According to legend, Zeus hurled a thunderbolt from Mount Olympus at a spot in rural Greece. An altar for Zeus was built on that spot. Eventually, many buildings were erected around the altar. This area was called Olympia and became the site for the Olympic games. Critical Thinking 1. Form Opinions Do you think it was a good decision for the Greeks to add more sporting events to the Olympics? Explain. 2. Compare and Contrast How are today’s Olympics similar to and different from the Olympics in ancient Greece? 158 Module 5  discouraged. As a result, Spartans did not value the arts, literature, or other artistic and intellectual pursuits. Spartans valued duty, strength, and discipline over freedom, individuality, beauty, and learning. Since men were expected to serve in the army until the age of 60, their daily life centered on military training. Boys left home when they were 7 and moved into army barracks, where they stayed until they reached the age of 30. They spent their days marching, exercising, and fighting. They undertook these activities in all kinds of weather, wearing only light tunics and no shoes. At night, they slept without blankets on hard benches. Their daily diet consisted of little more than a bowl of coarse black porridge. Those who wanted more to eat were encouraged to steal food. Such train- ing produced tough, resourceful soldiers. Spartan girls also led hardy lives. They received some military training, and they also ran, wrestled, and played sports. Like boys, girls were taught to put service to Sparta above everything—even love of family. A legend says that Spartan women told husbands and sons going to war to “come Reading Check back with your shield or on it.” As adults, Spartan women had considerable Compare freedom, especially in running the family estates when their husbands How would you were on active military service. Such freedom surprised men from other compare the ideals of Spartan and Greek city-states. This was particularly true of Athens, where women were Athenian societies? expected to remain mostly out of sight and quietly raise children. The Persian Wars Danger of a helot revolt led Sparta to become a military state. Struggles between rich and poor led Athens to become a democracy. The greatest danger of all—invasion by Persian armies—moved Sparta and Athens alike to their greatest glory. A New Kind of Army Emerges During the Dorian Age, only the rich could afford bronze spears, shields, breastplates, and chariots. Thus, in most This piece of city-states, only the rich served in armies. Iron later replaced bronze in the Greek pottery manufacture of weapons. Harder than bronze, iron was more common and shows a phalanx. therefore cheaper. Soon, ordinary citizens could afford to arm and defend themselves. The shift from bronze to iron weapons made possible a new kind of army composed not only of the rich but also of merchants, artisans, and small landown- ers. The foot soldiers of this army, called hoplites, stood side by side, each holding a spear in one hand and a shield in the other. This fearsome for- mation, or phalanx (FAY langks), became the most powerful fighting force in the ancient world. Classical Greece 159  Battle at Marathon The Persian Wars, between Greece and the Persian Empire, began in Ionia on the coast of Anatolia. The Greeks had long been settled there, but around 546 BC, the Persians conquered the area. When Ionian Greeks revolted, Athens sent ships and soldiers to their aid. The Persian king Darius the Great defeated the rebels and then vowed to destroy Athens in revenge. In 490 BC, a Persian fleet carried 25,000 men across the Aegean Sea and landed northeast of Athens on a plain called Marathon. There, 10,000 Athenians, neatly arranged in phalanxes, waited for them. Vastly outnum- bered, the Greek soldiers charged. The Persians, who wore light armor and lacked training in this kind of land combat, were no match for the disci- plined Greek phalanx. After several hours, the Persians fled the battlefield. The Persians lost more than 6,000 men. In contrast, Athenian casualties numbered fewer than 200. Explore ONLINE! The Persian Wars, 490–479 BC Persian campaign, 490 BC Persian campaign, 480 BC Persian victory Greek victory Mt. Olympus Indecisive battle Greek alliance Aegean Troy Persian empire and allies Sea Neutral Greek states 28°E Artemisium (480) P E RSI A N Thermopylae Sardis E MP I RE (480) IONIA 38°N Ephesus Plataea Athens (479) Mycale (479) G R E E CE Miletus (494) Sparta N W E Knossos Thebes Eretria S Cret e Salamis (490) 0 50 100 mi (480) Marathon 38°N (490) 0 100 200 km Athens Mediterranean Sea 34°N Saronic 24°E Interpret Maps Gulf 1. Movement By what routes did the Persians choose to 0 12.5 25 mi 24°E attack Greece? Explain why. 0 50 100 km 2. Location Where did most of the battles of the Persian Wars occur? How might their citizens have been affected? 160 Module 5 HMH — HSWH Full Survey — 2016 HS_SNLESE668225_171M  Pheidippides Brings News Though the Athenians won the battle, their city now stood defenseless. According to tradition, army leaders chose a young runner to race back to Athens. In this case, a young man named Pheidippides (fy DIP uh deez) brought news of the Persian defeat so that Athenians would not give up the city without a fight. After dashing the 26 miles from Marathon to Athens, he delivered his message, “Rejoice, we conquer.” He then collapsed and died. Moving rapidly from Marathon, the Greek army soon arrived in Athens. When the Persians sailed into the har- bor, they found the city heavily defended. They quickly went back to sea in retreat. Thermopylae and Salamis Ten years later, in 480 BC, Darius the Great’s son and successor, Xerxes (ZURK seez), assembled an enormous invasion force to crush Athens. The Greeks were badly divided. Some city-states agreed to fight the Persians. Others thought it wiser to let Xerxes destroy Athens and return home. Some Greeks even fought on the Persian side. Consequently, Xerxes’ army met no resistance as it marched down the eastern coast of Greece. When Xerxes came to a narrow mountain pass at Thermopylae (thur MAHP uh lee), 7,000 Greeks, including 300 Spartans, blocked his way. Xerxes assumed that his troops would easily push the Greeks aside. However, he underestimated their fighting ability. The Greeks stopped the Persian advance for three days. A traitor who informed the Persians about a secret path around the pass brought the Greeks’ brave stand to an end. Fearing defeat, the 300 Spartan soldiers held the Persians back while the other Greek forces retreated. All of the Spartans were killed. Their valiant sacrifice made a great impression on all Greeks. Meanwhile, the Athenians debated how best to defend their city. Themistocles, an Athenian leader, convinced them to evacuate the city and fight at sea. They positioned their fleet in a narrow channel near the island of Salamis (SAL uh mihs), a few miles southwest of Athens. After setting fire to Athens, Xerxes sent his warships to block both ends of the channel. However, the channel was very narrow, and the Persian ships Now and Then Modern Marathons Pheidippides’ heroic act in the Persian Wars inspired officials at the first modern Olympic Games—held in Athens in 1896—to add a 26-mile race to their competition. The course of the race ran from Marathon to the Olympic Stadium in Athens. Today, most of the world’s major cities stage marathons every year. People with physical challenges also compete in the Boston Marathon and many others. Classical Greece 161  had difficulty turning. Smaller Greek ships armed with battering rams attacked, puncturing the hulls of many Persian warships. Xerxes watched in horror as more than one-third of his fleet sank. He faced another defeat in 479 BC, when the Greeks crushed the Persian army at the Battle of Pla- taea (pluh TEE uh). After this major setback, the Persians were always on the defensive. The following year, several Greek city-states formed an alliance called the Delian (DEE lee uhn) League. (The alliance took its name from Delos, the island in the Aegean Sea where it had its headquarters.) League mem- bers continued to press the war against the Persians for several more years. In time, they drove the Persians from the territories surrounding Greece and ended the threat of future attacks. Consequences of the Persian Wars With the Persian threat ended, all the Greek city-states felt a new sense of confidence and freedom. Athens, in particular, basked in the glory of the victory over the Persians. During the 470s, Athens emerged as the leader of the Delian League, which had grown to some 200 city-states. Soon thereafter, Athens began to use its power to control the other league members. It moved the league headquar- Reading Check ters to Athens, and used military force against members that challenged Analyze Effects its authority. In time, these city-states became little more than provinces How did the Persian of a vast Athenian empire. The prestige of victory over the Persians and Wars affect the Greek people, especially the the wealth of the Athenian empire set the stage for a dazzling burst of Athenians? creativity in Athens. The city was entering its brief golden age. Lesson 2 Assessment 1. Organize Information Create a timeline similar to the 3. Contrast How does an aristocracy differ from an one shown. Fill it in with at least three events each for oligarchy? the history of Athens and Sparta between 750 BC and 4. Analyze Causes What contributions did Solon and the end of the Persian Wars. Cleisthenes make to the development of Athenian Athens democracy? 5. Analyze Effects How did Athens benefit from victory Draco’s Code in the Persian Wars? 6. Contrast How was living in Athens different from living in Sparta? Conquest of 7. Make Inferences The introduction of cheap iron Messenia weapons meant that ordinary Greek citizens could arm themselves. How might the ability to own weapons Sparta change the outlook of ordinary citizens? 2. Key Terms and People For each key term or person in 8. Analyze Motives Why were the Spartan soldiers will- the lesson, write a sentence explaining its significance. ing to sacrifice themselves at Thermopylae? 162 Module 5  Lesson 3 Democracy and Greece’s Golden Age Setting the Stage The Big Idea As the leaders in the Persian Wars, Athens and Sparta Democratic principles flourished became the two most powerful and influential city- during Greece’s golden age. states in Greece. Because the Spartans were not popular Why It Matters Now with the rest of Greece, Athens eventually became the The democratic principles set leading city-state. After the Persian Wars, Athens entered forth during Greece’s golden age a golden age, an age in which it was the center of Greek are the foundation for culture and politics. This golden age lasted for close to modern democracies, including 50 years, from 477 to 431 BC. the United States. Key Terms and People Pericles’ Plan for Athens direct democracy A wise and able statesman named Pericles led Athens dur- Peloponnesian War ing much of its golden age. Honest and fair, Pericles held onto popular support for 32 years. He was a skillful politician, an inspiring speaker, and a respected general. He so dominated life in Athens from 461 to 429 BC that this period is called Athenian and United States Democracy ATHENIAN DEMOCRACY BOTH U.S. DEMOCRACY Citizens: male; at least 18 years Political power exercised Citizens: born in United States old; with citizen parents by citizens or completed citizenship Laws voted on and proposed Three branches of process directly by assembly of all government Representatives elected to citizens Legislative branch passes propose and vote on laws Most officials chosen by lot laws Elected president Executive branch: a council of Executive branch carries Executive branch made up of 500 men out laws elected and appointed officials Juries varied in size Judicial branch conducts Juries composed of 12 jurors No attorneys; no appeals; trials with paid jurors Defendants and plaintiffs have one-day trials attorneys; long appeals process Interpret Charts Compare In what way was political power exercised by citizens in Athens? How is it exercised by citizens in the United States? Classical Greece 163  the Age of Pericles. Pericles’ goals included strengthening Athe- nian democracy as well as strengthening and holding the empire. He also worked on glorifying Athens, which you will read about in the next lesson. Stronger Democracy To strengthen democracy, Pericles increased the number of public officials who were paid salaries. Earlier in Athens, most positions in public office were unpaid. Thus, only wealthier Athenian citizens could afford to hold public office. Now even the poorest citizen could serve if elected or chosen by lot. Con- sequently, Athens had more citizens engaged in self-government This stone relief panel than any other city-state in Greece. This reform made Athens one shows Democracy, of the most democratic governments in history. represented as a person, crowning the seated The introduction of direct democracy, a form of government in which Demos, who personifies citizens rule directly and not through representatives, was an important the people of Athens. legacy of Periclean Athens. Few other city-states practiced this style of gov- ernment. In Athens, male citizens who served in the assembly established all the important government policies that affected the polis. Athenian Empire After the defeat of the Persians, Athens helped orga- nize the Delian League. In time, Athens took over leadership of the league and dominated all the city-states in it. Pericles used the money from the league’s treas­ury to make the Athenian navy the strongest in the Mediter- ranean. A strong navy was important because it helped Athens strengthen the safety of its empire. Prosperity depended on gaining access to the sur- rounding waterways. Athens needed overseas trade to obtain supplies of grain and other raw materials. DOCUMENT-BASED INVESTIGATION Historical Source Pericles on Democracy Thucydides is widely considered to be “Our constitution is called a democracy because power the greatest historian of ancient Greece. is in the hands not of a minority but of the whole people. In his History of the Peloponnesian War, When it is a question of settling private disputes, he included excerpts of speeches from everyone is equal before the law; when it is a question leaders on both sides, including this of putting one person before another in positions of passage from a speech by Pericles. The public responsibility, what counts is not membership in speech was given as part of a funeral a particular class, but the actual ability which the man for Athenian soldiers who had fallen during the war. As part of honoring the possesses. No one, so long as he has it in him to be of Athenian war dead, Pericles expressed service to the state, is kept in political obscurity because his great pride in Athenian democracy. of poverty.” —Pericles, “The Funeral Oration,” from Thucydides, Analyze Historical Sources The Peloponnesian War How does Pericles relate the issue of class to his opinion of democracy? 164 Module 5  BIOGRAPHY Pericles (495–429 BC) Pericles came from a rich and high-ranking noble family. His aristocratic father had led the Athenian assembly and fought at the Battle of Salamis in the Persian Wars. His mother was the niece of Cleisthenes, the Athenian noble who had introduced important democratic reforms. Pericles was well known for his political achievements as leader of Athens. Pericles the man, however, was harder to know. One historian wrote, “[He] no doubt, was a lonely man.... He had no friend... [and] he only went out [of his home] for official business.” Reading Check Athenian military might allowed Pericles to treat other members of the Find Main Delian League as part of the empire. Some cities in the Peloponnesus, how- Ideas What were the key features of ever, resisted Athens and formed their own alliances. Sparta in particular Athenian democracy? was at odds with Athens. Athenians and Spartans Go to War As Athens grew in wealth, prestige, and power, other city-states viewed it with hostility. Ill will was especially strong between Sparta and Athens. The Peloponnesian League Like Athens, Sparta was the head of a league of allied city-states. It was called the Peloponnesian League. This alliance had been formed in the 500s BC to provide protection and security for its members. For decades after the Persian Wars, tension built between the Delian and Peloponnesian leagues. Athens and its allies feared the military might of the other league. In return, Sparta feared Athens’ naval fleet as well as the spread of Athenian democracy. Many peo­ple thought that war between the two was inevitable. Instead of trying to avoid conflict, leaders in Athens and Sparta pressed for a war to begin. Both groups of leaders believed their own city-state had the advantage. Eventually, Sparta declared war on Athens in 431 BC. Peloponnesian War When the Peloponnesian War between the two city- states began, Athens had the stronger navy. Sparta had the stronger army, however, and its location inland meant that it could not easily be attacked by sea. Pericles’ strategy was to avoid land battles with the Spartan army and wait for an opportunity to strike Sparta and its allies from the sea. Eventually, the Spartans marched into Athenian territory. They swept over the countryside, burning the Athenian food supply. Pericles responded by bringing res­idents from the surrounding region inside the city walls. The city was safe from hunger as long as ships could sail into port with supplies from Athenian colonies and foreign states. Classical Greece 165  Explore ONLINE! Peloponnesian War, 431–404 BC 42°N 16°E 24°E Black Sea THRACE Byzantium Adriatic MACEDONIA Aegospotami Sea Amphipolis (422 BC) (405 BC) Cyzicus (410 BC) Cynossema (411 BC) Spartalos PERSIAN (429 BC) EMPIRE Aegean Arginusae Islands (406 BC) Ionian Sea Sea GREECE Delium IONIA Thebes (424 BC) Athenian victory Ephesus Spartan victory Athens Notium (407 BC) Athens and allies Sicily Sparta and allies Mantinea Corinth (418 BC) Miletus Neutral states N Syracuse (413 BC) Sparta W E Sphacteria (425 BC) Mediterranean Sea S 0 50 100 mi 0 50 100 km Crete Interpret Maps 1. Location Where were most of the allies of Athens located? 2. Movement Why was the sea important to Athens during the Peloponnesian War? In the second year of the war, however, disaster struck Athens. A HMH — HS WH—2016 fright- HS_SNLESE668225_174M ful plague swept through the city, killing perhaps one-third of the popula- First proof 05/17/16 Second proof 05/27/16 tion, including Pericles. Although weakened, Athens continued to fight Third pass 06/03/16 for several years. Then, in 421 BC, the two sides, worn down by the war, signed a truce. Sparta Gains Victory The peace did not last long. In 415 BC, the Athenians sent a huge fleet carrying more than 20,000 soldiers to the island of Sicily. Their plan was to destroy the city-state of Syracuse, one of Sparta’s wealthiest allies. The expedition ended with a crushing defeat in 413 BC. In his study of the Peloponnesian War, Thucydides recalled, “[The Athenians] were destroyed with a total destruction—their fleet, their army—there was nothing that was not destroyed, and few out of many returned home.” Somehow, a terribly weakened Athens fended off Spartan attacks for another nine years. Finally, in 404 BC, the Athenians and their allies surrendered. Athens had lost its empire, power, and wealth. Sparta, too, was exhausted by the war. It had nearly lost several times and had suffered damage almost as great as that suffered by Athens. 166 Module 5  CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR Causes After the Persian Wars, Athens established the Delian League. Athens took advantage of its position as the head of the Delian League to create an Athenian Empire. Sparta and its allies, the Peloponnesian League, resented the growing influence of Athens in Greece. Over decades, tensions built up between the two leagues. Effects Athens lost its navy and army and many lives were lost. Athens lost its empire, power, and wealth. Sparta became the supreme power in Greece. However, the Spartan army was weakened and was defeated by Thebes in 371 BC. In the 340s BC, after years of bitter squabbling among city-states, all of Greece was conquered by Macedonia. Interpret Charts Analyze Causes What caused the Peloponnesian War? After its victory, Sparta’s army tried to act as Greece’s dominant power. But Sparta’s wealth and resources were badly strained, and its power had worn down. As a result of this strain, the Spartans could not keep control Reading Check of Greece. The city-state of Thebes defeated Sparta, but it could not main- Analyze tain control either. The struggle for power in Greece led to a long cycle Motives What might have been of warfare that left all of Greece vulnerable to attack. In the 340s BC, a Pericles’ goals in the Greek-speaking kingdom to the north called Macedonia swept in and took Peloponnesian War? control of all of Greece. Lesson 3 Assessment 1. Organize Information Create a two-column graphic 2. Key Terms and People For each key term or person in organizer similar to the one shown and fill it in with the lesson, write a sentence explaining its significance. details about Pericles’ goals. Which of Pericles’ goals 3. Synthesize What steps did Pericles take to strengthen do you think had the greatest impact on the modern democracy in Athens? world? Explain your choice. 4. Summarize What were the battle strategies of Athens and Sparta in the Peloponnesian War? Strong Democracy Strong Empire 5. Draw Conclusions Was the time of Pericles’ rule a “golden age” for Athens? Explain. Classical Greece 167  Lesson 4 Achievements of Greek Culture Setting the Stage The Big Idea During the golden age, trade brought great wealth to Classical culture flourished Athens. Merchants from other parts of the world moved during Greece’s golden age. to the city, bringing their own foods and customs. As a Why It Matters Now result, Athens was a very cosmopolitan city. Adding to At its height, Greece set lasting its appeal were grand festivals, public celebrations, and standards in art, politics, litera- public events. Athenians could cheer their favorite ath- ture, and philosophy that are still letes in the city’s religious games or watch great dramas influential today. performed in the city’s theaters. Athens was the heart Key Terms and People of Greek culture during this time as drama, sculpture, poetry, philosophy, architecture, and science reached classical art lyric poetry new heights. tragedy comedy Glorious Art and Architecture philosopher As leader of the Delian League, Athens controlled the money in Socrates its treasury. Pericles used the money to glorify Athens. Without Plato Aristotle the league’s approval, he persuaded the Athenian assembly to allot huge sums of the league’s money to buy gold, ivory, and marble. Still more money went to pay the artists, architects, and workers who used these materials. Pericles’ goal was to have the greatest Greek artists and architects create magnifi- cent sculptures and buildings to glorify Athens. At the center of his plan was what became one of architecture’s noblest works— the Parthenon. Architecture and Sculpture The Parthenon, a masterpiece of architectural design and craftsmanship, was not unique in style. Rather, Greek architects constructed the 23,000-square- foot building in the traditional style that had been used to create Greek temples for 200 years. Like most Greek temples, the Parthenon had doors but no windows. The structure was surrounded by tall, graceful columns, above which were slabs Classical Greek sculpture portrayed of marble carved with scenes from myths. Though the ruins ideal beauty, and at a later period, of the Parthenon appear white today, parts originally were moved toward realism—as shown by this Roman copy of a painted in vivid colors. Greek statue. 168 Module 5 DOCUMENTBASED INVESTIGATION ▲ Historical Source The Parthenon and Athena Parthenos In Greek architecture, the most important type of building was the temple. The walled rooms in the center of the temple held sculptures of gods and goddesses and lavish gifts to these deities. ▲ The Parthenon Built between 447 and 432 BC, the Parthenon was a Greek temple dedicated to Athena. It serves as an excellent example of the Greek artistic ideals of harmony, symmetry, and balance. Just as Greek philosophers tried to understand the basic laws of nature, so Greek architects looked to nature for guidance. They discovered a ratio in nature that they believed created pleasing proportions and used that ratio to design the rectangles in the Parthenon. Athena Parthenos The great Athenian sculptor Phidias created a ▲ sculpture of Athena, goddess of wisdom, to stand in the Parthenon. The sculpture shown here is actually a first or second century AD Roman copy of the original Athena Parthenos. The original, which likely appeared quite different, has been lost. Phidias’s renderings of Greek deities provided ideas of what those gods and goddesses were imagined to look like. Analyze Historical Sources How does the Parthenon display the Greek preference for symmetry and balance? This temple, built to honor Athena, the goddess of wisdom and the protector of Athens, contained examples of Greek art that set standards for future generations of artists around the world. Pericles entrusted much of the work on the Parthenon to the sculptor Phidias (FIDH ee uhs). Within the temple, Phidias crafted a giant statue of Athena that not only con- tained such precious materials as gold and ivory, but also stood more than 30 feet tall. Phidias and other sculptors during this golden age aimed to create fig- ures that were graceful, strong, and perfectly formed. Their faces showed neither joy nor anger, only serenity. Greek sculptors also tried to capture the grace of the idealized human body in motion. They wanted to portray ideal beauty, not realism. Their values of harmony, order, balance, and Classical Greece 169  proportion became the standard of what is called classical art. Though we know a great deal about ancient Greek sculpture, very few original works remain. Much of what we do know about Greek sculpture is based on copies of Greek statues made by the Romans a few hundred years later. Roman artists made many copies of what they considered to be the greatest Greek statues. Many of these copies survived even after the original statues were destroyed. Painting As with Greek sculpture, only a few original Greek paintings have survived. The best pre- This red-figure dish shows a served are paintings on vases, plates, and other vessels. scene from Greek These vessels are often decorated with scenes from every- mythology in day life or from myths or legends. Most of them use only two which the hero Theseus slays a colors—red and black—for their illustrations. creature called The red was the natural color of the clay vessels, and the black was a the Minotaur. glaze added to the finished pieces. Despite this limited palette, Greek artists were able to convey movement and depth in their paintings. This ability was important to the Greeks since they wanted objects to be both functional and beautiful. Though we have little evidence of larger paintings, ­written sources tell us that the Greeks also created murals, or wall paintings, in many public buildings. According to these sources, the Greeks’ murals often included Reading Check Make scenes from the Iliad and the Odyssey. Such paintings often focused on the Generalizations aftermath of battle rather than on the battle itself. One Athenian mural, What were some for example, showed a scene from the day after the defeat of Troy. Fallen characteristics of Greek architecture soldiers still dressed in full armor lay amid the ruins of once great Troy. and art? Themes like this were very popular with the Athenian people. Poetry, Drama, and History While the most famous works of Greek literature are the great epic poems written by Homer, the Greeks wrote many types of poetry besides epics. For example, the poet Hesiod (HEE-see-uhd) wrote descriptive poetry. Among the subjects he described in his poems were the works of the gods and the lives of peasants. Lyric Poetry The Greeks also created lyric poetry, named after a musical instrument called the lyre that was often played to accompany the reading of poems. Lyric poems do not tell stories. Instead, they deal with emotions and desires. Pindar was a lyric poet who lived from about 522 to 443 BC. He wrote poems to commemorate public events like the Olympic Games. Drama The Greeks invented drama as an art form and built the first theaters in the West. Theatrical productions in Athens were both an 170 Module 5 Historical Source Sappho (c. 610–570 BC) Among the earliest poets to gain fame for writing lyric poetry was Sappho (SAF oh), one “Iridescent-throned Aphrodite, deathless of the few Greek women to gain fame as a Child of Zeus, wile-weaver, I now implore you, writer. Her poems deal with daily life, marriage, Don’t—I beg you, Lady—with pains and torments love, and relationships with her family and Crush down my spirit” friends. In “Hymn to Aphrodite,” Sappho begs —Sappho, “Hymn to Aphrodite” the goddess of love to send her a new love. Analyze Historical Sources In what way is Sappho’s poem an example of lyric poetry? expression of civic pride and a tribute to the gods. As part of their civic duty, wealthy citizens bore the cost of producing the plays. Actors used colorful costumes, masks, and sets to dramatize stories. Many plays were about leadership, justice, and the duties owed to the gods. They often included a chorus that danced, sang, and recited poetry. Tragedy and Comedy The Greeks wrote two kinds of drama—tragedy and com- edy. A tragedy was a serious drama about common themes such as love, hate, war, or betrayal. These dramas featured a main character, or tragic hero. The hero usually was an important person and often gifted with extraordinary abilities. A tragic flaw usually caused the hero’s downfall. Often this flaw was hubris, or excessive pride. In ancient times, Greece had three notable dramatists who wrote tragedies. Aeschylus (EHS kuh luhs) wrote more than 80 plays. His most famous work is the trilogy—a three-play series—Oresteia (ohr res TEE uh). It is based on the fam- ily of Agamemnon, the Mycenaean king who commanded the Greeks at Troy. The This poster promotes an 1898 plays examine the idea of justice. Sophocles production of Euripides’ Medea, (SAHFv uh kleez) wrote more than 100 plays, starring the great French actress Sarah Bernhardt. Classical Greece 171  In the sixth century BC, the Greeks became the first people to use theater for its own sake and not for religious rituals. Actors wore theatrical masks like these that exaggerated human expressions. The plays were performed in outdoor theaters. The stage was partially surrounded by a semicircular seating area fitted into a hillside, such as the one shown here. including the tragedies Oedipus the King and Antigone. Euripides (yoo RIP uh deez), author of the play Medea, often featured strong women in his works. In contrast to Greek tragedies, a ­comedy contained scenes filled with slapstick situations and crude humor. Playwrights often made fun of politics and respected people and ideas of the time. Aristophanes (ar ih STAHF uh neez) wrote the first great comedies for the stage, includ- ing The Birds and Lysistrata. Lysistrata portrayed the women of Athens forc- ing their husbands to end the Peloponnesian War. The fact that Athenians could listen to criticism of themselves showed the freedom and openness of public discussion that existed in democratic Athens. History There are no written records from the Dorian period. The epic poems of Homer recount stories, but they are not accurate recordings of what took place. Herodotus, a Greek who lived in Athens for a time, pio- neered the accurate reporting of events. His book on the Persian Wars is considered the first work of history. However, the greatest historian of the classical age was the Athenian Thucydi