Module 6: Learning and Memory PDF

Learning and Memory PSYCORE-INPSY INTRODUCTION TO...

Learning and Memory PSYCORE-INPSY INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES to your sixth module! KARL MICHAEL M. VALDULLA, CHRA Course Instructor/Professor BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN PSYCHOLOGY SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE Gen. Luna St. Guitnangbayan I, San Mateo, Rizal No part of this module may be reproduced, Tel. No. (02) 997-9070 www.smmc.edu.ph distributed, or transmitted in any form or by any means without the prior permission of the instructor. © San Mateo Municipal College All Rights Reserved © San Mateo Municipal College All Rights Reserved MODULE SIX: LEARNING AND MEMORY “Develop a passion for learning. If you do, you will never cease to grow.” Anthony J. D’Angelo SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Bachelor of Science in Psychology Karl Michael M. Valdulla, CHRA  © San Mateo Municipal College All Rights Reserved © San Mateo Municipal College All Rights Reserved MODULE SIX LEARNING AND MEMORY INTRODUCTION Learning and memory are two ways of thinking about the same thing: both are neuroplastic processes; they deal with the ability of the brain to change its functioning in response to experience. Learning deals with how experience changes the brain, and memory deals with how these changes are stored and subsequently reactivated. Without the ability to learn and remember, people would experience every moment as if waking from a lifelong sleep—each person would be a stranger, each act a new challenge, and each word is incomprehensible. WHAT IS LEARNING? Learning refers to a change in behavior, which results from experience. This change can be long-lasting, but may or may not be permanent. Behavioral learning falls into three general categories: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning, also sometimes referred to as Pavlovian conditioning, is probably the most well-known theory of learning. It was accidentally discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan P. Pavlov, after conducting research on the digestion of dogs. He noticed that dogs appeared to know when it was time for them to be fed. He confirmed this with a simple set-up, using five basic variables: unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, neutral stimulus, conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response. Unconditioned Stimulus (US) An unconditioned stimulus (US) is a stimulus or trigger that leads to an automatic response. If a cold breeze makes you shiver, for instance, the cold breeze is an unconditioned stimulus; it produces an involuntary response— the shivering. Unconditioned Response (UR) An unconditioned response (UR) is an automatic response or a response that occurs without thought when an unconditioned stimulus is present. If you smell your favorite food and your mouth starts watering, the watering is an unconditioned response. Neutral Stimulus (NS) A neutral stimulus (NS) is a stimulus that doesn't initially trigger a response on its own. If you hear the sound of a fan but don't feel the breeze, for example, it wouldn't necessarily trigger a response. That would make it a neutral stimulus. Conditioned Stimulus (CS) A conditioned stimulus (CS) is a stimulus that was once neutral, or didn't trigger a response, but now leads to a response. If you previously didn't pay attention to dogs, but then got bit by one, and now you feel fear every time you see a dog, the dog has become a conditioned stimulus. SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Bachelor of Science in Psychology Karl Michael M. Valdulla, CHRA © San Mateo Municipal College All Rights Reserved Conditioned Response (CR) A conditioned response (CR) is a learned response or a response that is created where no response existed before. Going back to the example of being bit by a dog, the fear you experience after the bite is a conditioned response. Pavlov’s Dog Experiment When the dog was presented with meat, it would salivate. The meat is the unconditioned stimulus (US) and the salivation is the unconditioned response (UR). When the dog was made to hear a bell sound, the dog made no reaction. The bell is the neutral stimulus (NS). But when the bell was heard each time prior to feeding, the dog learned to salivate just by hearing the bell. The bell is now the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the consequent salivation is now the conditioned response (CR). An association is established between the bell and the meat, the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (US) respectively. Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning, is a method of learning which was first describe by behaviorist Burrhus F. Skinner that employs rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence (whether negative or positive) for that behavior. Components of Operant Conditioning There are several key concepts in operant conditioning. The type of reinforcement or punishment that is used can have an effect on how the individual responds and the effect of conditioning. There are four types of operant conditioning that can be utilized to change behavior: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment. Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of reinforcers. In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases. Positive Reinforcers Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior. In positive reinforcement situations, a response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of praise or a direct reward. If you do a good job at work and your manager gives you a bonus, that bonus is a positive reinforcer. Negative Reinforcers Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the display of a behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant. SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Bachelor of Science in Psychology Karl Michael M. Valdulla, CHRA © San Mateo Municipal College All Rights Reserved For example, if your child starts to scream in the middle of a restaurant, but stops once you hand them a treat, your action led to the removal of the unpleasant condition, negatively reinforcing your behavior (not your child's). Punishment in Operant Conditioning Punishment is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of punishment. In both of these cases, the behavior decreases. Positive Punishment Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by application, presents an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows. Spanking for misbehavior is an example of punishment by application. Negative Punishment Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when a favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs. Taking away a child's video game following misbehavior is an example of negative punishment. Observational Learning (Social Learning Theory) The focus of the Social Learning Theory by Albert Bandura is that learning occurs within the social context. It states that people learn from each other, by observational learning, imitation and modeling. This is exemplified by the fact that children behave much like their parents and teenagers dress like their peers. Core Concepts of Social Learning Theory There are three (3) core concepts at the heart of social learning theory: (1) First is the idea that people can learn through observation. (2) Next is the notion that internal mental states are an essential part of this process. (3) Finally, this theory recognizes that just because something has been learned, it does not mean that it will result in a change in behavior. Key Factors for Social Learning Success It is important to note that not all observed behaviors are effectively learned. Why not? Factors involving both the model and the learner can play a role in whether social learning is successful. Certain requirements and steps must also be followed. The following steps are involved in the observational learning and modeling process: attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. Attention In order to learn, you need to be paying attention. Anything that distracts your attention is going to have a negative effect on observational learning. If the model is interesting or there is a novel aspect of the situation, you are far more likely to dedicate your full attention to learning. Retention The ability to store information is also an important part of the learning process. Retention can be affected by a number of factors, but the ability to pull up information later and act on it is vital to observational learning. SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Bachelor of Science in Psychology Karl Michael M. Valdulla, CHRA © San Mateo Municipal College All Rights Reserved Reproduction Once you have paid attention to the model and retained the information, it is time to actually perform the behavior you observed. Further practice of the learned behavior leads to improvement and skill advancement. Motivation Finally, in order for observational learning to be successful, you have to be motivated to imitate the behavior that has been modeled. Reinforcement and punishment play an important role in motivation. WHAT IS MEMORY? Memory refers to the psychological processes of acquiring, storing, retaining, and later retrieving information. There are three major processes involved in memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Encoding Encoding is the first stage of memory and involves the initial processing of information entering the memory system. During encoding, sensory information from the environment is transformed into a form that can be stored in the brain. Consolidation Consolidation is the process of stabilizing and organizing encoded information for long-term storage. During consolidation, encoded information is linked to existing memories. This helps to determine where the new information belongs and solidifies the memory. Storage Storage refers to the process of keeping the information in our memory so that we can access it at a later time. When we store information in our memory, we are essentially creating a mental representation of that information. This mental representation can be in the form of a picture, a sound, or a feeling. Retrieval Retrieval is the process of recalling or accessing stored information when needed. During the retrieval process, the brain runs through encoding, consolidation, and storage of the memory repeatedly. With each run-through, retrieval gets easier. The retrieval stage protects memories from being lost. The oldest and most retrieved memories are the most resilient. THREE TYPES OF MEMORY While several different models of memory have been proposed, the stage model of memory is often used to explain the basic structure and function of memory. Initially proposed in 1968 by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin, this theory outlines three separate stages or types of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long- term memory. Sensory Memory Sensory memory is a very brief memory that allows people to retain impressions of sensory information after the original stimulus has ceased. It is often thought of as the first stage of memory that involves registering a tremendous amount of information about the environment, but only for a very brief period. SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Bachelor of Science in Psychology Karl Michael M. Valdulla, CHRA © San Mateo Municipal College All Rights Reserved Echoic Memory Also known as auditory sensory memory, echoic memory involves a very brief memory of sound a bit like an echo. This type of sensory memory can last for up to three to four seconds. Iconic Memory Also known as visual sensory memory, iconic memory involves a very brief image. This type of sensory memory typically lasts for about one-quarter to one-half of a second. Haptic Memory Also known as tactile sensory memory, haptic memory involves the very brief memory of a touch. This type of sensory memory lasts for approximately two seconds. People only pay attention to certain aspects of this sensory memory. Attending to sensory memory allows some of this information to pass into the short-term memory. Short-Term Memory Short-term memory, also known as primary memory or active memory, is the capacity to store a small amount of information in the mind and keep it readily available for a short period of time. Most of the information kept in short-term memory will be stored for approximately 20 to 30 seconds, or even less. Some information can last in short-term memory for up to a minute, but most information spontaneously decays quite quickly, unless you use rehearsal strategies such as saying the information aloud or mentally repeating it. Long-Term Memory Long-term memory refers to the transfer of information from short-term memory into long-term storage in order to create enduring memories. This type of memory is unlimited in capacity and stable—lasting for years or even a lifetime. Short-term memories can become long-term memories through a process known as consolidation. Long- term memory is usually divided into two types: explicit memory and implicit memory. Explicit Memory Explicit memory, also known as declarative memory, include all of the memories that are available in consciousness. It allows people to bring information into conscious awareness. Explicit memory can be further divided into two categories: episodic memory and semantic memory. Episodic Memory Episodic memories are memories from an individual’s life events and experiences. They are concerned with when and where an event occurred, and how it relates to the individual. Semantic Memory Semantic memories are the factual and conceptual knowledge people have about the world. Implicit Memory Implicit memories are memories that are mostly unconscious. It allows people to perform actions without needing to consciously recall how to do them. SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Bachelor of Science in Psychology Karl Michael M. Valdulla, CHRA © San Mateo Municipal College All Rights Reserved Procedural Memory Procedural memories involve memories of body movement and how to use objects in the environment. Procedural memories are automatically retrieved for the execution of procedures involved in both cognitive and motor skills. This enables task performance without the need for conscious control or attention. FORGETTING Forgetting, also sometimes referred to as disremembering, is the loss or change in information that was previously stored in short-term or long-term memory. It can occur suddenly or it can occur gradually as old memories are lost. While it is usually normal, excessive or unusual forgetting might be a sign of a more serious problem. There are four basic explanations for why forgetting occurs: decay theory, interference, encoding failure, and motivated forgetting. Decay Theory According to this theory, a memory trace is created every time a new memory is formed. Decay theory suggests that over time, these memory traces begin to fade and disappear. If the information is not retrieved and rehearsed, it will eventually be lost. One problem with this theory, however, is that research has demonstrated that even memories which have not been rehearsed or remembered are remarkably stable in long-term memory. Interference Sometimes people forget due to a phenomenon known as interference. Some memories compete and interfere with other memories. When information is very similar to other information that was previously stored in memory, interference is more likely to occur. There are two basic types of interference: proactive interference and retroactive interference. Proactive Interference Proactive interference is when an old memory makes it more difficult or impossible to remember a new memory. Retroactive Interference Retroactive interference occurs when new information interferes with your ability to remember previously learned information. Encoding Failure Sometimes, losing information has less to do with forgetting and more to do with the fact that it never made it into long-term memory in the first place. Encoding failures sometimes prevent information from entering long- term memory. Motivated Forgetting Sometimes, people may actively work to forget memories, especially those of traumatic or disturbing events or experiences. Painful memories can be upsetting and anxiety-provoking, so there are times people may desire to eliminate them. There are two basic forms of motivated forgetting: suppression and repression. Suppression Suppression is consciously trying to forget or not think about painful or unwanted thoughts. Repression Repression involves unconsciously blocking painful or unwanted thoughts. SAN MATEO MUNICIPAL COLLEGE INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY Bachelor of Science in Psychology Karl Michael M. Valdulla, CHRA