Learning and Memory PDF

Learning and Memory  Definition of Learning Gardner Murphy (1968)- the term learning covers every modification in behaviour to meet environmental requirements. Gates (1946) – learning is the modification of behaviour through experience. Woodworth (1945) – any activity can be called lea...

Learning and Memory  Definition of Learning Gardner Murphy (1968)- the term learning covers every modification in behaviour to meet environmental requirements. Gates (1946) – learning is the modification of behaviour through experience. Woodworth (1945) – any activity can be called learning so far as it develops the individual (in any respect, good or bad) and makes his later behaviour and experiences different from what they would otherwise have been. Kingsley and Garry (1957) - learning is the process by which behaviour changed through practice or training.  Nature and characteristics of learning 1. Learning is the change in behaviour. 2. Learning is a continuous life long process. 3. Learning is a universal process. 4. Learning is purposive and goal directed. 5. Learning involves reconstruction of experiences. 6. Learning is the product of activity and environment. 7. Learning is transferable from one situation to another. 8. Learning helps in attainment of teaching – learning objectives. 9. Learning helps in the proper growth and development. 10. Learning helps in the balanced development of the personality. 11. Learning helps in proper adjustment. 12. Learning helps in the realization of goals of life. 13. Learning does not necessarily imply improvement. Types of learning 1. Motor learning: Most of our activities in our day-to-days life refer to motor activities. The individual has to learn them in order to maintain his regular life, for example walking, running, skating, driving, climbing, etc. All these activities involve the muscular coordination 2. Verbal learning: This type of learning involves the language we speak, the communication devices we use. Signs, pictures, symbols, words, figures, sounds, etc, are the tools used in such activities. We use words for communication. 3. Concept learning: It is the form of learning which requires higher order mental processes like thinking, reasoning, intelligence, etc. we learn different concepts from childhood. For example, when we see a dog and attach the term ‘dog’, we learn that the word dog refers to a particular animal. Concept learning involves two processes, viz. abstraction and generalisation. This learning is very useful in recognizing, identifying things 4. Discrimination learning: Learning to differentiate between stimuli and showing an appropriate response to these stimuli is called discrimination learning. Example, sound horns of different vehicles like bus, car, ambulance, etc. 5. Learning of principles: Individuals learn certain principles related to science, mathematics, grammar, etc. in order to manage their work effectively. These principles always show the relationship between two or more concepts. Example: formulate, laws, associations, correlations, etc. 6. Problem solving: This is a higher order learning process. This learning requires the use of cognitive abilities-such as thinking, reasoning, observation, imagination, generalization, etc. This is very useful to overcome difficult problems encountered by the people. 7. Attitude learning: Attitude is a predisposition which determines and directs our behaviour. We develop different attitudes from our childhood about the people, objects and everything we know. Our behaviour may be positive or negative depending upon our attitudes. Example: attitudes of nurse towards her profession, patients, etc. 8. Classical conditioning Learning a specific behavioral response in the presence of a given stimulus Response to an association between two stimuli Simple, automatic responses Stimulus-response learning +  Pavlov’s Dog Generalization and Discrimination Stimulus Generalization: A phenomenon in which a conditioned response is elicited by stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus Stimulus Discrimination: A process through which individuals learn to differentiate among similar stimuli and respond appropriately to each one 9. Operant conditioning Learning to make a response in order to gain reinforcement or avoid punishment Formation of associations between a discriminative stimulus, behavioral output, and resulting consequences Discriminative stimulus: contextual cue In response to the discriminative stimulus, behavior occurs Reinforcing or punishing stimulus follows the behavior Animal learns to make the correct behavior in the context, in order to gain reinforcement/avoid punishment B.F. Skinner Operant Conditioning: The focus is on the effect of consequences on voluntary (operant) behavior.  Operant conditioning Behaviors increase when the consequences are favorable, decrease when outcomes are aversive Learning from our experiences: figuring out behaviors to repeat, and other behaviors not to repeat Stimulus-response learning  Reinforcement Primary Reinforcer Secondary Reinforcer (Token Economy)  Positive Negative Applies Stimulus Removes Stimulus Operant Conditioning Reinforcement Increases the POSITIVE frequency of desirable behavior Punishment Decreases the frequency of undesirable behavior Shaping and Chaining Shaping: the reinforcement of successive approximation (steps) to teach a specific behavior Chaining: Linking two learned behaviors together in a specific order. Operant Conditioning at Work 10. Insight Learning How were the chimpanzees able to demonstrate insight? Insight: a sudden “coming together” of all elements of a problem in a kin of “aha” moment 11. Observational Learning (Albert Bandura Observational Learning: learning new behavior by watching a model perform that behavior Modeled: imitated the behavior that was observed LAWS OF LEARNING Thorndike’s Laws of Learning: 1. LAW OF EFFECT Learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling Learning is weakened when associated with unpleasant feeling Learning takes place properly when it results in satisfaction and the learner derives pleasure out of it 2. LAW OF EXERCISE Things most often repeated are best remembered Students do not lean complex task in a single session 3. LAW OF READINESS Individuals learn best when they are physically, mentally and emotionally ready to learn, and they do not learn well if they see no reason for learning  4. LAW OF PRIMACY Things learned first create a strong impression What is taught must be right the first time 5. LAW OF RECENCY Things most recently learned are best remembered 6. LAW OF INTENSITY The more the intense the material taught, the more it is likely learned  7. LAW OF FREEDOM Things freely learned are best learned The greater the freedom enjoyed by the students in the class, the greater the intellectual and moral advancement enjoyed by them Memory  Activity Group the class into groups with 6 members each. We will play pass the message The first student will get the message from the teacher, pass it to the next student, until the last student get the message and write it on a piece of paper. First to get 2 points will win.  Sixty-six senior citizens seating on a six by six seat for the sick  I cannot do everything but I can do something. Since I cannot do everything, I will not fail to do that something which I can do. There are 3 things certain here on earth: sickness, death and change. Memory Definition: The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.  Memory Processes Encoding--transforming information into a form that can be entered and retained in the the memory system Storage--retaining information in memory so that it can be used at a later time Retrieval--recovering information stored in memory so that we are consciously aware of it  Three Stages of Memory Three memory stores that differ in function, capacity and duration Maintenance Rehearsal Encoding Sensory Attention Sensory Working or Long-term Memory Short-term memory Input Memory Retrieval  Sensory Memory Function —process for basic physical characteristics Capacity—large can hold many items at once Duration—very brief retention of images 3 sec for visual info 2 sec for auditory info Divided into two types: iconic memory–visual information echoic memory– auditory information Attention is needed to transfer information to working memory  Sensory Memory Visual sensory memory—brief memory of an image or icon. Also called iconic memory. Auditory sensory memory—brief memory of a sound or echo. Also called echoic memory. Auditory sensory memories may last a bit longer than visual sensory memories Short Term or Working Memory Sensory Attention Working or Sensory Short-term Input Memory Memory  Short-Term Memory Function—conscious processing of information where information is actively worked on Capacity—limited (holds 7+/-2 items) Duration—brief storage (about 30 seconds) Sensory Attention Working or Sensory Short-term Input Memory Memory  Maintenance Rehearsal Mental or verbal repetition of information allows information to remain in working memory longer than the usual 30 seconds Maintenance Rehearsal Sensory Attention Sensory Working or Memory Short-term Input Memory  Chunking Grouping small bits of information into larger units of information expands working memory load Which is easier to remember? 4 8 3 7 9 2 5 1 6 483 792 516  Long-Term Memory Once information passes from sensory to working memory, it can be encoded into long- term memory Maintenance Rehearsal Encoding Sensory Attention Sensory Working or Long-term Memory Short-term memory Input Memory Retrieval  Long-Term Memory Function—organizes and stores information more passive form of storage than working memory Unlimited capacity Duration—thought by some to be permanent Maintenance Rehearsal Encoding Sensory Attention Sensory Working or Long-term Memory Short-term memory Input Memory Retrieval  Long-Term Memory Encoding—process that controls movement from working to long-term memory store Retrieval—process that controls flow of information from long-term to working memory store Maintenance Rehearsal Encoding Sensory Attention Sensory Working or Long-term Memory Short-term memory Input Memory Retrieval  Automatic vs. Effortful Encoding Automatic processing Unconscious encoding of information Examples: What did you eat for lunch today? Was the last time you studied during the day or night? You know the meanings of these very words you are reading. Are you actively trying to process the definition of the words?  Automatic vs. Effortful Encoding Effortful processing Requires attention and conscious effort Examples: Memorizing your notes for your upcoming Introduction to Psychology exams Repeating a phone number in your head until you can write it down  Types of Long-Term Memory Explicit memory—memory with awareness; information can be consciously recollected; also called declarative memory Implicit memory—memory without awareness; memory that affects behavior but cannot consciously be recalled; also called nondeclarative memory  Explicit Memory Declarative or conscious memory Memory consciously recalled or declared Can use explicit memory to directly respond to a question Two subtypes of explicit memory  Explicit Memory Episodic information—information about events or “episodes” Semantic information—information about facts, general knowledge, school work  Episodic Memory Memory tied to your own personal experiences Examples: What month is your birthday? Do you like to eat caramel apples? Q: Why are these explicit memories? A: Because you can actively declare your answers to these questions  Semantic Memory Memory not tied to personal events General facts and definitions about the world Examples: How many tires on a car? What is a cloud? What color is a banana? Does NOT depend on tying the item to your past  Implicit Memory Nondeclarative memory Influences your thoughts or behavior, but does not enter consciousness  Procedural Memory Memory that enables you to perform specific learned skills or habitual responses Examples: Riding a bike Using the shift stick while driving Tying your shoe laces  Why do we forget? Sensory memory The senses momentarily register amazing detail Forgetting Short-term memory can occur A few items are both noticed and encoded at any memory Long-term storage Some items are altered or lost stage Retrieval from long-term memory Depending on interference, retrieval cues, moods, and motives, some things get retrieved, some don’t  Forgetting as retrieval failure Retrieval—process of accessing stored information Sometimes info IS encoded into LTM, but we can’t retrieve it Encoding Short-term Long-term memory memory X Retrieval Retrieval failure leads to forgetting  Measures of Retrieval Recall—test of LTM that involves retrieving memories without cues, also termed free recall Cued recall—test of LTM that involves remembering an item of information in response to a retrieval cue Recognition—test of LTM that involves identifying correct information from a series of possible choices Serial position effect—tendency to remember items at the beginning and end of a list better than items in the middle  Theories of Forgetting Encoding failure Interference theories Motivated forgetting Decay  Forgetting as encoding failure Info never encoded into LTM Short-term X Encoding Long-term memory memory Encoding failure leads to forgetting  Interference Theories “Memories interfering with memories” Forgetting NOT caused by mere passage of time Caused by one memory competing with or replacing another memory Two types of interference  Two Types of Interference Types of Interference Retroactive Proactive Interference Interference  Retroactive Interference When a NEW memory interferes with remembering OLD information Example: When new phone number interferes with ability to remember old phone number  Proactive Interference Opposite of retroactive interference When an OLD memory interferes with remembering NEW information Example: Memories of where you parked your car on campus the past week interferes with ability find car today  Motivated Forgetting Undesired memory is held back form awareness Suppression—conscious forgetting Repression—unconscious forgetting (Freudian)  Decay Theories Memories fade away or decay gradually if unused Time plays critical role Ability to retrieve info declines with time after original encoding  Decay Theories  Biology-based theory  When new memory formed, it creates a memory trace  a change in brain structure or chemistry  If unused, normal brain metabolic processes erode memory trace  Theory not widely favored today  Amnesia Amnesia—severe memory loss Retrograde amnesia—inability to remember past episodic information; common after head injury; need for consolidation Anterograde amnesia—inability to form new memories; related to hippocampus damage THANK YOU!