Module 3: Theoretical Underpinnings PDF

MODULE 3. THEORETICAL UNPINNINGS Module overview: This module explores how different theoretical perspectives explain the development of gender, encompassing the psychology of LGBTQ individuals. It delves into three primary frameworks: biological, sociological, and psychological. By...

MODULE 3. THEORETICAL UNPINNINGS Module overview: This module explores how different theoretical perspectives explain the development of gender, encompassing the psychology of LGBTQ individuals. It delves into three primary frameworks: biological, sociological, and psychological. By exploring these various perspectives, the module seeks to promote a more inclusive and understanding view of gender, recognizing the diversity of human experiences and challenging rigid societal norms that often individuals’ self-expression and well-being. LEARNING OUTCOMES: By the end of the lesson, you shall be able to: a. explain the role of biology in the development of sex and sexuality and its implications in gender development; b. examine the psychological explanations in the formation of gender identity; and c. compare how sociological perspectives explain gender and sex. Introduction There's a lot more to being male, female, or any other gender than your birth sex. Your sex, whether biological or ascribed, does not necessarily reveal the whole story. ✓ Recall what we have learned in Module 2: What are the differences between sex, gender, and gender identity? People frequently mix up sex, gender, and gender identity. However, they're all separate things. Sex is a label — male or female — given to you by a doctor at birth based on your genitals and chromosomes. It will be recorded on your birth certificate. Gender is even more complicated: it is social and legal status, as well as a set of societal expectations regarding actions, features, and attitudes. Each culture has gender-based guidelines for how people should act. This might be either a man or a woman. It's more about how you're expected to act because of your sex than it is about body components. Gender identity refers to how you feel on the inside and how you display it through your dress, conduct, and personal appearance. It's a feeling that starts at a young age. Assigned sex is a name assigned to you at birth based on medical variables such as hormones, chromosomes, and genitals. The majority of people are labeled as male or female, and their birth certificates reflect this. 1 Some people refer to the sex we're born with as "biological sex," but this term doesn't adequately describe the wide range of biological, anatomical, and chromosomal differences that can occur. Only having two alternatives (biologically male or female) may not adequately represent what's going on within a person's body. Some individuals say "assigned male at birth" or "assigned female at birth" instead of "biological sex," which admits that someone (usually a doctor) is making a decision for someone else. The biological sex assigned to a person may or may not correspond to what's going on in their bodies, how they feel, or how they identify. Our ascribed sex is determined by a variety of characteristics that begin as early as fertilization. An X or a Y chromosome can be found in each sperm. An X chromosome is found in every egg. When sperm fertilizes an egg, the X or Y chromosome of the sperm joins the egg's X chromosome. People with XX chromosomes normally have female sex and reproductive organs and are therefore physiologically feminine. A person with XY chromosomes is physiologically masculine because he or she possesses ale sex and reproductive organs. What happens of one is neither an xx or an xy? Intersex is a term used to describe someone whose sexual and reproductive anatomy does not appear to meet the traditional classifications of female and male.Other chromosomes, hormones, and body part configurations can occur, resulting in someone being intersex, which will be discussed at the latter of Lesson 1. But why is it important that we understand what being male, female, trans, queer, or intersex means? Because the first thing we notice about someone is their gender. Knowing their gender influences how we interact with them and the expectations we have of them Gender is one of the key pieces of information gathered in application forms There is not a culture in the world that does not distinguish people in some way based on their gender. Gender plays an important part in our self-identity, and we generally expect others to correctly identify our own gender (and we may be deeply offended if they get it wrong). There is the expectation that the two genders are different in varying ways. These theories provide us with various ways of looking at these differences. By having a good grasp of gender and its development, we do not risk falling into the trap of gender stereotyping. 2 WARM-UP ACTIVITY: Film showing When does one develop to be a man or a woman? A male or a female? Or who tells you that you are a man or a woman, or anything else. Or can someone make you a man or a woman? This section will help us understand how gender development can be both a result of nature and nurture, or in more technical terms, biology and society. But before anything else, let us see what one classic Disney film tells us about being a man or woman. Figure 1Disney. (2016, June 4). Mulan | I’ll Make a Man Out of You | Disney Sing-Along [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TVcLIfSC4OE CONTENT: Lesson 1 Nature: The Biology of the Sexes a. The biology of the sexes (chromosomes, hormones, genes, sex organs) According to the biological viewpoint, there is no difference between sex and gender, hence biological sex causes gendered behavior. Hormones and chromosomes are the two biological components that determine gender. Hormones Hormones are chemical molecules that are secreted by glands all over the body and circulated through the bloodstream. Both men and women have the same sex hormones, but the amounts and effects they have on different sections of the body vary. Testosterone is a sex hormone that affects development and behavior both before and after birth, and it is more common in men than in women. When testosterone is produced in the womb, it causes the hypothalamus to become masculinized and induces the development of male sex organs (at 7 weeks). Testosterone can produce masculine characteristics such as aggression, competitiveness, visuospatial abilities, and enhanced sexual drive. The sexually dimorphic nucleus, which is 3 located towards the base of the brain and is part of the hypothalamus, is significantly larger in males than in females. At the same time, testosterone has an effect on the developing brain. The brain is divided into two hemispheres: left and right. In all humans, the left half of the brain is more specialized for language skills, while the right half is more specialized for nonverbal and spatial skills. Shaywitz et al. (1995) used MRI images to compare the brains of men and women while performing linguistic tasks, and discovered that women used both hemispheres whereas men only used one. Male and female brain hemispheres appear to work more independently, and testosterone appears to influence this brain lateralization. Chromosomes and Genes There are 23 pairs of chromosomes in a normal human body. A chromosome is a long, thin structure that contains hundreds of genes, which are biological units of heredity that control how a person develops. The 23rd chromosome pair determines biological sex, and each pair of chromosomes governs various elements of development. The letters X and Y are physically similar to chromosomes. Males = XY Females = XX SRY Gene (Sex-determining Region Y gene. The SRY gene on the Y chromosome leads the embryo's gonads (sex organs) to develop into testes at around 6 weeks. If the embryo lacks a Y chromosome, it will lack the SRY gene, which will cause the gonads to grow into ovaries. The SRY gene is sometimes absent from the Y chromosome or does not function. The baby develops, is born, and grows up to be a small girl, then a woman, yet her chromosomes are XY. To themselves and others, such persons are usually definitely women. If the SRY gene was inserted into female mice, Koopman et al. (1991) discovered that they evolved into male mice. One of the more contentious applications of this discovery was as a form of gender verification at the 1992 Olympic Games, 4 as part of a system established by the International Olympic Committee. Female athletes were not allowed to compete since they carried the SRY gene. ✓ Atypical Chromosomes Individuals with atypical chromosomes develop socially, physically, and cognitively differently than those with conventional chromosomes. People with Turner's syndrome and Klinefelter's syndrome may aid our understanding of gender because psychologists can discover which forms of behavior are genetic by examining persons with atypical sex chromosomes and comparing their development to that of people with typical sex chromosomes (e.g. determined by chromosomes). Turner's syndrome Turner's syndrome (XO) is a condition in which females have only one X chromosome on chromosome 23. (1 in 5000 chance). Turner's syndrome (XO) is a condition in which females have only one X chromosome on chromosome 23. (1 in 5000 chance). Turner's syndrome is characterized by a lack of puberty maturation and a webbing of the neck. There are disparities in cognitive skills and behavior in comparison to conventional chromosomal patterns, in addition to physical differences. The people who are affected have above-average verbal abilities but below-average spatial abilities, visual memory, and mathematical abilities. They also struggle with social adjustment at school and have generally poor peer relationships. Klinefelter's Syndrome 1 in every 750 boys has Klinefelter's syndrome (XXY). These men have a Y chromosome as well as an extra X on the 23rd chromosome, resulting in the XXY configuration. Physically, they resemble men, albeit the extra X chromosome results in less body hair and underdeveloped genitals. The syndrome is first noticed in childhood when the boy's linguistic skills are lacking. The child may still be unable to communicate at the age of three. Their weak language abilities have an impact on their reading ability in school. Their demeanor is defined as quiet and cooperative when they are babies. They carry this tranquility and shyness with them for the rest of their lives. This shows that aggression levels are influenced by biological rather than environmental factors. 5 Sex vs Gender Identity Gender is a much larger and more complex concept than sex. Gender encompasses gender roles, which are society's and people's expectations of a person's ascribed sex in terms of behaviors, beliefs, and attributes. Gender is influenced by perceptions about how men and women are expected to behave, dress, and communicate. As girls and boys, men and women, gender is also social and legal status. It's easy to get sex and gender-mixed up. Just keep in mind that biological and assigned sex are both about biology, anatomy, and chromosomes. Gender is the collection of expectations, standards, and qualities that society has for how men and women should behave. How you feel on the inside and how you express those feelings make up your gender identity. Gender identity can be expressed through clothing, looks, and actions. Figure 2Image source: Biosciences, T. (2021, March 23). The Issue of Sex vs. Gender in Preclinical Animal Model Studies. Taconic Biosciences. https://www.taconic.com/taconic-insights/quality/sex-vs-gender-preclinical- research.html The majority of people believe they are either male or female. Some people have the sensation of being a masculine female or a feminine male. Some people don't identify as either male or gender. These individuals may be labeled as "genderqueer," "gender variant," or "gender fluid." Your gender identification can begin as early as age 2 or 3. Some people's ascribed sex and gender identities are almost identical, if not identical. These individuals are referred to as cisgender. Others believe their assigned sex is the opposite gender of their gender identification (i.e., assigned sex is female, but gender identity is male). These individuals are referred to as transgender or trans. Not every transgender person has the same identification. B. The nature of the “Intersex” Have you ever heard about the intersex? Do you know some people who are intersex? Remember Caster Semanya, the famous South African runner you met in Module 2? 6 She is one of them. Keep in mind that identifying as male, female, or any other gender entails much more than only your biological sex. Your sex, whether biological or assumed, does not always tell the entire story. But first, let us understand what the term means by watching the video below, then let’s dive deep into what it really means to male, female, trans, intersex, and a whole lot more. Figure 3TEDx Talks. (2019b, October 25). What I’ve learned from having balls. | Emily Quinn | TEDxProvidence [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=28Ip-STEPKU Intersex is a catch-all phrase for bodies that don't fit neatly into the male/female dichotomy. Someone can be intersex in a variety of ways. Intersex people are born with sex characteristics (including genitals, gonads and chromosome patterns) that do not fit typical binary notions of male or female bodies. Experts estimate that up to 1.7 percent of the population are born with intersex traits. Intersex is a broad term that refers to a variety of situations in which a person is born with reproductive or sexual anatomy that does not fall neatly into the categories of "male" or "female." Intersex babies and children are sometimes subjected to surgeries to conform their bodies to binary ideas of "male" or "female." Doctors usually give intersex kids legal sex (male or female in most states), but it doesn't guarantee that's the gender identification they'll grow up with, just as non-intersex people. This raises the question of whether it is acceptable to perform medical procedures on children's bodies when they are not required for their health. Because being intersex is a natural human variation that isn't a medical condition, medical procedures (such as surgeries or hormone therapy) on youngsters are usually unnecessary. Intersex persons are also more prevalent than most people realize. It's difficult to say how many people are intersex, although estimates show that roughly 1-2 out of every 100 persons born in the United States are. 7 What does a baby born who is an intersex looks like? The baby may have: a clitoris that’s larger than expected a penis that’s smaller than expected no vaginal opening a penis without a urethra opening at the tip (the opening might instead be on the underside) labia that are closed or otherwise resemble a scrotum a scrotum that is empty and resembles labia But the baby’s genitalia may also look completely male or completely female. In other words, they may have male anatomy on the outside but female anatomy on the inside or vice versa. It could be that a child’s status as intersex doesn’t become obvious until puberty when their body produces more of a hormone that doesn’t match their assigned sex. Or perhaps certain expected puberty milestones — like a deepening voice or growing breasts — don’t happen. Or maybe the ones that happen are characteristic of what you thought was the “opposite” sex. In these cases, a person who had more biological male features as a child might look more feminine after puberty, according to a society slow to reject the traditional binary system. Or a person who looked female as a child might start to look more stereotypically male as a teenager. And sometimes, a person might not learn they have intersex traits until even later, such as if they have difficulty having children and see specialists to learn why. (Note: Not all people with intersex traits have issues with fertility.) It’s even possible to have intersex traits and never know. Regardless, a person doesn’t “become” intersex. It’s what they’re born with, whether it’s clear at birth or not until later. Intersex can manifest itself in a variety of ways. Some intersex people have genitals or internal sex organs that aren't classified as male or female, such as ovarian and testicular tissues. Other intersex persons, such as XXY, have various chromosomal combinations than XY (typically associated with male) and XX (generally associated with female). Some persons are born with external genitals that are classified as male or female, but their internal organs or hormones are not. When a person's genitals don't match what doctors and nurses expect when they're born, they may be labeled as intersex from the start. Sometimes people don't realize they're intersex until later in life, such as when they reach puberty. It's possible for someone to go their entire life without realizing they're intersex. What happens when someone is born intersex? 8 When a baby is born intersex, doctors and the family usually decide on a sex, either male or female, and raise the child as that sex's gender. As a youngster approaches puberty, it's usual to have surgery on the baby's genitals and to give the infant hormones to help them fit into male/female categories. However, intersex activism is developing, which is contributing to some changes in our culture, which now considers intersex as a medical illness rather than a normal, healthy way for bodies to be. Today, an increasing number of people believe that unneeded surgery and other medical procedures on intersex babies and children should be avoided at all costs. Instead, intersex people should be permitted to choose whether or not they want therapy or surgery when they are older. In recent years, awareness of intersex people, and recognition of the specific human rights abuses that they face, has grown, thanks to the work of intersex human rights defenders. Human rights abuses against intersex people include, but are not limited to: infanticide forced and coercive medical interventions discrimination in education, sport, employment and other services lack of access to justice and remedies. Figure 4 Easy ways to spread love & visibility this Intersex Awareness Day. (n.d.). https://www.intersexequality.com/easy- ways-to-spread-love-visibility-this-intersex-awareness-day / 9 Lesson 2. The Psychological Perspectives on Gender Introduction Gender-related discussions frequently center on the notion that gender roles are "natural," "hardwired," and inevitably produced by human biology, i.e., penises lead to masculinity and vaginas lead to femininity. From this vantage point, the path is well-traveled and predetermined. Judith Butler, on the other hand, refers to gender as an activity, as something we engage in. It is described as "the repetitive stylization of the body, a series of repeated acts inside a relatively rigorous regulatory frame that solidify over time to generate the illusion of substance, of a natural form of being." According to this perspective, gender is more about performance than actuality, with "the body as a type of canvas on which culture paints representations of gender." How we acquire gender identity Traditionally, there are three main psychological explanations of how we navigate the path to gender identity. These are psychodynamic theory, social learning theory, and cognitive- developmental theory. All focus on early childhood, that is, up until about seven years of age. Social learning theory The interaction between modeling and reinforcement is explained in part by social learning theory, however it tends to downplay individual differences in development and responses from others, such as inconsistent behavioral reinforcement. While taking cognitive characteristics into account, it also downplays children's autonomy and their active attempts to make sense of the environment. Furthermore, it is unclear how kids handle gender-contradictory signals. We learn a lot about gender through the role models around us (remember all the things we just learned about: parents, the media, school, and peers). A young child may set down her toy truck and play with the dolls if she observes three other girls playing with dolls while she is still engaged in her own game of toy truck. If a boy observes his dad continually mowing the grass, he could imitate it. The intriguing element is that modeling continues even after the present moment has passed. The more often we witness it, the more it integrates into our socialization. We start to learn the rules of how we are to behave, what actions are acceptable and wanted by other people, what actions are not, etc. Social cognitive theory is an additional theory that blends the notion of social learning with cognitive theories. While social learning modeling helps to explain certain phenomena, it does not cover all of them. This is so that we may see how others respond to our conduct as well as how we behave. Say a young girl is playing with a truck, for instance, and her friends tease her. She will receive feedback that her actions are not gender-normative, and she may decide to alter her course of action as a result. We also receive clear instructions on how to act. Again, boys do not play with dolls, females do not get muddy and filthy, boys do not weep, and so on. The social cognitive theory proposes that this may be explained by enactive experiences, direct teaching, and modeling. Enactive experiences are essential when a person encounters reactions to gendered behavior. Modeling is when others show someone gendered behavior and expectations and direct instruction is when someone is taught the knowledge of proper gendered conduct. According to this idea, these societal factors have an impact on children's ability to recognize and express their gender (Bussey, 2014). Gender development is explained and theorized to be dual impacted by (1) biology and (2) the environment by social cognitive 10 theories of gender. Additionally, the idea contends that these items have an effect on and interact with several factors (Bussey & Bandura, 2005). In addition, unlike prior theories like psychodynamic theories, which concentrated on infancy and adolescence, this theory considers development over the whole lifespan. Cognitive-developmental theory According to the cognitive-developmental hypothesis, as we develop and interact with the outside world as children, our mental structures change as we move through several developmental stages. Language development is one of the many developmental milestones that children experience as they progress from the basic to the complex and from the tangible to the abstract. Within developmental phases that allow for an increasingly sophisticated understanding of concepts and language, children are active actors in adopting gender roles. Children's beliefs change as they get older as a result of gaps between their knowledge and their experiences of the world. Only until a kid has attained a specific degree of cognitive development can they acquire gender constancy, stability, and consistency. This point of view contends that gender identification is multifaceted and may change along with language. Boys more than girls place a higher priority on their own gender, which is a recurring topic in the literature. This lends some credence to the psychodynamic idea that boys need to exert more effort. Gender Schema Theory Gender schema theory, although largely a cognitive theory, does incorporate some elements of social learning as well. Schemas are essentially outlines – cognitive templates that we follow, if you will. Thus, a gender schema is an outline about genders – a template to follow regarding gender. The idea is that we use schemas about gender to guide our behaviors and actions. Within this theory, it is assumed that children actively create their schemas about gender by keeping or discarding information obtained through their experiences in their environment (Dinella, 2017). Interestingly, there are two variations of gender schema theory. Bem created one theory while Martin and Halverson created another, though we will not dive into the differences between these theories. (Dinella, 2017). Superordinate schemas and own-sex schemas are generally acknowledged to be the two types of schemas that are pertinent to gender schema theory. While own-sex schemas provide information about one's own actions in relation to their own gender group, superordinate schemas provide information for gender groupings (Dinella, 2017). We thus need schemas, but why? They are simply a cheat sheet that makes things simpler and quicker. Think about it: You wouldn't even need to study if the test's outline said that the shortest response is always the correct response. You don't even need to "read" the answer choices, in fact. Simply choose the option with the fewest words, and you will pass the exam (wouldn't that be nice?!). Therefore, gender schemas facilitate the decision-making process when it comes to gendered behavior. 11 How do children develop schemas? There are probably three distinct stages. Children first learn to recognize their own gender groupings and start developing schemas. Then comes a strict period where everything is very black or white (or, girl or boy, if you will). Schemas have very limited flexibility and things can only be one way or the other. This happens between the ages of five and seven. Finally, there is a stage where kids start to understand that schemas are flexible and have a little more "gray" space (Dinella, 2017). Let's consider how schemas are employed to start interpreting the world. A youngster starts applying schemas to themselves once they can identify their own gender. Therefore, if a male applies the schema that "Only girls cook" to himself, he may discover he is unable to prepare meals. This then influences his actions. In a 1995 research, Martin, Eisenbud, and Rose divided toys into categories for boys, girls, and neutral toys. Children tended to gravitate toward gender- normed items and apply gender schemas. Boys, for instance, liked toys that adults classified as boy toys. Boys would reject an item that was appealing (i.e., much sought) but was designated for girls. According to the gender schema theory, a child's internalized gender schema is formed as a result of observations made of his or her surroundings, culture, people around them, and how they interact. In other words, a kid will discover their gender and the social expectations of men and women via their observations of the world at an early age. The youngster will actively seek out information about which duties and characteristics are seen to be acceptable for which gender once they have learnt what is expected of men and women in their culture. The youngster will then probably act in certain ways and make choices based on how they perceive their gender. In addition, the youngster will interpret any new information about gender that comes from their surroundings. Lesson 3 Sociological Views Introduction: Human behavior is shaped by the groups to which people belong and the social interactions that take place inside those groups, according to sociology's core premise. We are who we are and act the way we do because we live in a specific civilization at a specific point in time and space. People have a tendency to accept their social reality without inquiry as "natural," but a sociological perspective allows us to perceive society as a transient social product made by humans and capable of change. The sociology of gender investigates how society shapes our perceptions of masculinity (what society considers proper behavior for a "man") and femininity (what society considers appropriate behavior for a "woman"). We investigate how this affects identity and social practices. We pay specific attention to the power relationships that arise from a society's established gender order, as well as how this develops over time. Section 1. Functionalist Perspective (Gender Stratification, Division of Labor by Sex) A. The Concept of Gender Stratification 12 Stratification has always been in our culture, but formerly it was thought to be due to economic and caste barriers. Later, female sociologists subtly showed how gender plays an equal part in stratifying our society. Females were abused and classified as low-income, although they later moved into a new group. Gender stratification refers to the degree of unequal access by the different genders to prestige, authority, power, rights, and economic resources. To measure degrees of stratification, anthropologists commonly consider the following: a. how much importance a culture places on women relative to men and vice versa; b. how power and authority is delegated between women and men; and c. what kinds of rights and responsibilities do men and women possess. B. Division of labor as explained by functionalist theories Division of labor: A division of labor is the dividing and specializing of cooperative labor into specifically circumscribed tasks and roles. In gender studies and researches, the gendered division of labor refers to the performance of different work tasks by men and women (Charles & Lopez, 2017). According to the functionalist viewpoint, society is a complex system whose components work together to generate solidarity and stability." This approach takes a macro-level view of society, focusing on the social institutions that shape society as a whole. Gender inequalities, according to this idea, are an effective way to produce a division of labor, or a social system in which one segment of the population is obviously responsible for some labor activities while another section is clearly responsible for other labor acts. Functional requirements are the essential needs (food, shelter, clothing, and money) that an individual requires to live above the poverty level, according to sociological studies. The factors that allow a society to preserve social order are often referred to as functional requirements. Gender, according to structural functionalists, helps to keep social order in place by providing and assuring the stability of such functional conditions. This perspective has been criticized for reinforcing gender roles rather than reflecting them. While gender roles are important in the sense that they help to maintain stable social connections, many people feel that they are discriminatory and should be abolished. The feminist movement, which arose at the same time as functionalism began to fade, claims that functionalism ignores women's oppression within the family structure. 13  Figure 5Gender division of labor. (n.d.). [Digital art]. weebly.com. https://ws5and62014.weebly.com/gender-division-of-labor.html Section 2. The Conflict Theory Conflict theory asserts that social problems occur when dominant groups mistreat subordinate ones, and thus advocates for a balance of power between genders. The family structure was linked to the bourgeoisie-proletariat connection by Frederich Engels, who implied that women in the household had less authority than men since they were depending on them for wages. In Conflict Theory, men, like any other group with a power or money advantage, struggled to keep control of resources (in this case, political and economic power). Conflict between the two factions was responsible for social transformation, such as the Women's Suffrage Movement. According to conflict theory, society is defined by social groupings competing for scarce resources in a struggle for domination. Conflict theory believes that gender is best understood as men striving to maintain power and privilege at the expense of women in the context of gender. As a result, men are the dominating group, while women are the subservient group. The Feminist Perspective IN FOCUS: Feminist Movements and The Feminist Theory The Feminist Movement The feminist movement (also known as the women’s liberation movement, the women’s movement, or simply feminism) refers to a series of political campaigns for reform on a variety of issues that affect women’s quality of life. Although there have been feminist movements all over the world, this section will focus on the four eras of the feminist movement in the U.S. a. First Wave Feminism (1848-1920) The women's suffrage movement and its promotion of the woman's right to vote defined first wave feminism in the late nineteenth century. While many people remember women like Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, the women's suffrage movement generally ignored and discriminated against women of color, including suffragists like Ida B. Wells, Ellen Watkins 14 Harper, and Sojourner Truth. Under the 19th amendment, white women were eventually granted the right to vote in 1920. Women of color would not have the universal right to vote until the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which gave the right to vote to all people of color 45 years later. b. Second Wave Feminism (1960s-1980s) From about the 1960s to the 1990s, second wave feminism focused on a broader range of concerns, including pay equity, reproductive rights, female sexuality, and domestic abuse. Many of these aims, like those of the first wave of feminism, were attained through legislation and significant court rulings. Despite some attempts to include racial justice in the second wave movement, it remained a lower priority than gender. If they were regarded at all, class and race were viewed as secondary concerns. The gap between white women and white men narrowed, while the gap between women of color and white men, or even women of color and white women, remained substantially unchanged. (Second wave feminists, like first wave feminists, were influenced by other social movements at the time. The civil rights movement, the anti-war movement, the environmental movement, the student movement, the gay rights movement, and the farmworkers movement were all active during the 1960s.) c. Third Wave Feminism (1990s-2008) - The “micropolitics” of gender equality From the mid-1990s forward, third wave feminism arose, opposing female heteronormativity. Third-wave feminists wanted to re-define femininity and promote diversity of race, class, and sexual orientation. While third-wave feminists embrace feminism, they reject many assumptions of the feminine ideal, and in some cases, even the term "feminism." The development of intersectionality began to take shape as a result of this movement, which was a striking break from the second wave. Kimberlé Crenshaw, a lawyer and activist, invented the term "intersectionality" to explain "how race, class, gender, and other human characteristics 'intersect' and overlap." The work of preceding waves of women had paved the way for the primary challenges. The campaign to eliminate pay discrepancies between men and women, as well as women's reproductive rights, continues. Work to end violence against women in our country and around the world continues. Acceptance and a true grasp of the term 'feminist' were at the forefront of this wave. Third-wave feminists used mass media, notably the internet ("cybergrrls" and "netgrrls"), to establish a worldwide, multicultural, and boundary-crossing feminism. Many ongoing macrosociological issues, such as sexual harassment and sexual assault, were not properly addressed by third wave feminism's focus on identification and blurring of boundaries. d. Fourth Wave Feminism (2008-present) Fourth wave feminism has just been around for a decade or so, making it difficult to describe. Fourth-wave feminism is defined by action-based viral campaigns, rallies, and movements such as #MeToo moving from the margins of society to the front pages of our daily news. The fourth wave has been described as "queer, sex-positive, trans-inclusive, body-positive, and technologically driven," and it aims to dismantle gender norms even more. White male supremacy is the issue that these feminists are up against. Fourth-wave feminists think that 15 feminism is incomplete without a knowledge of comprehensive justice, which deconstructs power structures and encompasses racial justice, as well as analyses of class, disability, and other concerns. Feminist Theories key points Inequality between men and women is universal and the most significant form of inequality. Gender norms are socially constructed not determined by biology and can thus be changed. Patriarchy is the main cause of gender inequality – women are subordinate because men have more power. Feminism is a political movement; it exists to rectify sexual inequalities, although strategies for social change vary enormously. Feminist theory is a form of conflict theory that investigates gender inequality. It examines the perpetuation of gender roles and inequities using a conflict perspective. In particular, radical feminism analyzes the role of the family in maintaining male domination. Men's efforts are valued more highly in a patriarchal society than women's. Patriarchal viewpoints and arrangements are commonplace and assumed. As a result, women's voices are often silenced or marginalized to the point of being discredited or dismissed. According to Sanday's study of the Indonesian Minangkabau (2004), women and men tend to work cooperatively rather than competitively in matriarchal societies (those in which women are the dominant group), regardless of whether a job is considered feminine or not. Feminism in the Philippines In the Philippines, the women's movement has made significant progress in terms of economic, political, and social equality. Nonetheless, much work remains to be done, such as addressing inequalities in political representation and economic opportunities, as well as the aggression and violence brought on by the specter of patriarchy, which persists to this day. While the women's movement in the Philippines has shown constant growth and momentum, women in the minority, such as lesbians, bisexuals, and transwomen, continue to battle for a position in the movement. At the dawn of a new government and under the current circumstances, feminism and the women's movement in the Philippines face fresh obstacles. To keep the women's struggle for freedom, equality, and social justice going, they must persevere and adapt to these changes. Discover: 1. What is the role of Filipino women in early pre-colonial and colonial times? Today? 2. Identify the and share some of these Filipina feminists in class. 16  Section 3. Symbolic Interactionism Gender is formed and reinforced through daily encounters and the usage of symbols, according to symbolic interactionists. Interactionism researchers look at how people behave in society and believe that interactions provide meaning. A person's sense of their gender role is founded on how society perceives them, according to Cooley's concept of the "looking-glass self." As a result, if society perceives a man as manly, he will perceive himself as masculine as well. The notion that masculinity and femininity are gender identities that are performed is known as "doing gender." Gender is a function or performance, not a personality trait. Key Terms femininity: the sum of all attributes that convey (or are perceived to convey) womanhood masculinity: the degree or property of being masculine or manly; manliness (“Gender Stratification – HUM210 Introduction to Women and Gender Studies”) "Charles H. Cooley: an early twentieth century sociologist who developed the idea of the “looking-glass self”" (“11.3: Sociological Perspectives on Gender Stratification”) Interactionism is a sociological theory that views social processes (such as conflict, collaboration, and identity formation) as arising from human contact. Scholars that take this approach look at how people behave in society and feel that meaning is created via interactions between people. Conclusion: The development of gender identity, gender stereotypes and how they affect people Overall, the link between identity and expression, as well as how we interpret the differences between (biological) sex, the self, and the society, are the grey regions that disclose the psychology of gender. The mismatch gaps may be small or even unnoticeable for some people, while others may develop methods of acting and thinking to span the gap. However, for certain people, the gap may appear insurmountable. As noted elsewhere in this module, the first thing we notice about someone is their gender. How we interact with them and our expectations of them are based on their gender. Because almost every society in the world distinguishes its members based on gender, our interactions with them and our expectations of them are shaped by this gender differentiation. We expect others to correctly identify our gender and become offended if they don't since gender is a significant aspect of who we are. Gender stereotypes can sometimes be perpetuated by insensitivity to the gender identities of others. If this happens, we commit gender stereotyping. 17 Even if it's unduly simplified and not necessarily correct, a stereotype is a widely accepted judgment or bias about a person or group. Gender stereotypes can lead to uneven and unfair treatment based on a person's gender. This is known as sexism. There are four basic kinds of gender stereotypes: Personality traits — Women, for example, are frequently expected to be flexible and emotional, whilst men are frequently expected to be assertive and assertive. Domestic behaviors — Some people believe that women should care for the children, cook, and clean the house while men handle the finances, work on the car, and maintain the house. Occupations — Some people assume that teachers and nurses are female, while pilots, doctors, and engineers are male. Physical appearance — Men are expected to be tall and powerful, while women are expected to be slim and graceful. Both men and women are expected to dress and groom in gender-specific ways (guys wearing slacks and short hairstyles, ladies wearing gowns and make-up). Hyperfemininity is defined as the excess of stereotyped feminine behavior. People who are hyperfeminine accentuate the qualities they perceive are feminine. Being docile, innocent, sexually inexperienced, soft, flirty, graceful, nurturing, and welcoming are all examples of this. The amplification of stereotyped masculine behavior is known as hypermasculinity. People who are hypermasculine exaggerate the qualities they believe are masculine. They feel that by being aggressive, worldly, sexually experienced, insensitive, physically intimidating, ambitious, and demanding, they can compete with other males and dominate feminine people. Exaggerated gender stereotypes can make interpersonal connections challenging. People who are hyperfeminine are more prone to be physically and emotionally abused by their relationships. Hypermasculine people are more likely to abuse their spouses physically and emotionally. Gender stereotypes are damaging because they prevent people from fully expressing themselves and their feelings. It's damaging to macho people, for example, to believe that they can't cry or exhibit sensitive feelings. It's also damaging to women to believe that they aren't permitted to be independent, intelligent, or forceful. Gender stereotypes must be broken in order for everyone to be their best self. Fighting gender stereotypes Gender prejudices are probably all around you. You may have also witnessed or experienced sexism, or gender prejudice. There are strategies to combat preconceptions and assist everyone, regardless of gender or gender identity, feel equal and appreciated as individuals. Point it out — Negative gender stereotypes abound in magazines, television, movies, and the Internet. People don't always notice stereotypes unless they're pointed out to them. You can be that person! Discuss the preconceptions you've noticed with your friends and family, and educate people on how sexism and gender stereotypes may be harmful. 18  Be a living example — Serve as an example to your friends and family. People should be respected regardless of their gender identity. Create a comfortable environment for people to express themselves and their genuine selves, regardless of societal gender stereotypes and expectations. Speak up — Challenge anyone who makes sexist jokes or comments, whether online or in person. Give it a try — Think about whether you'll be safe doing something that isn't traditionally linked with your gender. Give it a shot if you believe you'll enjoy it. Your example will inspire others. Application: Song Analysis and Theoretical Exploration Objective: To analyze the portrayal of gender and gender development in Mulan through the lyrics and themes of its songs, applying different theoretical perspectives. Instructions: 1. Song Selection: Divide into groups and choose one of the following songs from Mulan: - "Reflection": This song explores Mulan's internal conflict between societal expectations and her own desires. - "I'll Make a Man Out of You": This song focuses on the training and transformation of the soldiers, highlighting masculine ideals and expectations. - "A Girl Worth Fighting For": This song showcases Mulan's heroism and challenges traditional gender roles. 2. Gender and Gender Development Analysis: Each group should analyze their chosen song, focusing on the following questions: - How does the song depict gender roles and expectations in Mulan's society? - What are the messages about femininity and masculinity conveyed in the song? - How does the song reflect the process of gender development? - Are there any examples of gender nonconformity or challenges to traditional gender norms in the song? 3. Theoretical Application: Each group should choose one of the following theoretical perspectives to analyze their chosen song: - Biological Theory: This theory emphasizes the role of biological factors, such as hormones and genetics, in shaping gender differences. 19 - Sociological Theory: This theory focuses on how social structures, cultural norms, and social interactions influence gender roles and development. - Psychological Theory: This theory explores the cognitive, emotional, and behavioral aspects of gender identity and development. 4. Presentation: Each group should present their analysis to the class, explaining: - The lyrics and themes of their chosen song - How the song reflects gender and gender development - How their chosen theoretical perspective helps to understand the song's message Example: A group chooses "Reflection" and decides to analyze it through a sociological lens. They might discuss how the song reflects the pressures of traditional Chinese gender roles on Mulan, highlighting the conflict between her individual identity and societal expectations. They could also explore how the song shows the influence of family, community, and cultural norms on Mulan's sense of self. Assessment: Proposal on a gender-based activity for the culminating project, “Gender Fair. Rubrics for Song Analysis and Theoretical Explorations Excellent 5 Good 4 Fair 3 Poor 1 Understanding Demonstrates a Demonstrates Demonstrates Demonstrates of Gender deep a good a limited no Significance understanding of understanding understanding understanding how gender is of how gender of how gender of how gender constructed and is constructed is constructed is constructed performed in the and performed and performed and performed song. - Identifies in the song. - in the song. in the song. key gendered Identifies some Identifies few Fails to identify themes and key gendered key gendered key gendered analyzes their themes. - Uses themes. Uses themes. Does significance. - some evidence little evidence not use Uses evidence from the song from the song evidence from from the song to to support to support the song to support analysis. analysis analysis. 20  support analysis. Content Writing is clear, Writing is Writing is Writing is very Quality concise, and mostly clear difficult to difficult to engaging. - and concise. - understand. - understand. - Grammar, Minor Multiple Numerous spelling, and grammatical, grammatical, grammatical, punctuation are spelling, or spelling, or spelling, or flawless. - Ideas punctuation punctuation punctuation are well- errors. - Ideas errors. - Ideas errors. - Ideas organized and are generally are not well- are not flow logically. well-organized. organized. organized. Application of Selects and Selects and Selects and Does not Theories applies relevant applies some applies few select or apply theories to relevant relevant relevant analyze the song. theories to theories to theories to Explains the analyze the analyze the analyze the theories clearly song. Explains song. Explains song. Fails to and accurately. the theories the theories explain the Uses theories to adequately. incompletely. theories. Does deepen Uses theories Uses theories not use understanding of to deepen to minimally theories to the song’s understanding enhance enhance meaning. of the song’s understanding understanding meaning. of the song’s of the song’s meaning. meaning. Use of Effectively Integrates Attempts to Fails to References integrates a wide relevant and integrate effectively range of relevant credible references to integrate and credible references to support references to references to support arguments and support support arguments and analysis, but arguments and arguments and analysis, the choice and analysis, analysis, demonstrating relevance of demonstrating demonstrating solid research references may a lack of extensive and be limited, research and research and understanding reflecting basic understanding understanding of of the topic. research and of the topic. the topic. understanding of the topic. 21 References: Bjork, P. (2021, March 4). A Brief Look at the Four Waves of Feminism. TheHumanist.Com. https://thehumanist.com/commentary/a-brief-look-at-the-four- waves-of-feminism/ Cavanaugh, L. (2016). A Brief History: The Four Waves of Feminism. Progressivewomenleadership. https://www.progressivewomensleadership.com/a-brief- history-the-four-waves-of-feminism/ Esteva, N. (2019, March 14). The women who helped shape Philippine feminism. Cnn. https://www.cnnphilippines.com/life/culture/2019/3/14/The-women-who-helped-shape- Philippine-feminism-.html?fbclid=IwAR0_yTXAKmOsPT6ZCm4Ndy_7pEaLvtcqISvFSle5cPCmbwvzd4U_fP5 X4PI Hega, M., Alporha, V., & Evangelista, M. (2017, December). Feminism and the Women’s Movement in the Philippines: Struggles, Advances, and Challenges. Friedrich- Ebert-Stiftung – Philippine Office. https://library.fes.de/pdf- files/bueros/philippinen/14072.pdf Lumen Learning. (2022). Theories of Gender and Sex | Introduction to Sociology. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-introtosociology/chapter/theories-of-gender- and-sex/ 22 Ranjan, V. (2020, April 18). Gender Stratification: Sociological Perspectives. TriumphIAS. https://triumphias.com/blog/gender-stratification-sociological-perspectives/ TEDx Talks. (2019b, October 25). What I’ve learned from having balls. | Emily Quinn | TEDxProvidence [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=28Ip-STEPKU References: Bjork, P. (2021, March 4). A Brief Look at the Four Waves of Feminism. TheHumanist.Com. https://thehumanist.com/commentary/a-brief-look-at-the-four- waves-of-feminism/ Cavanaugh, L. (2016). A Brief History: The Four Waves of Feminism. Progressivewomenleadership. https://www.progressivewomensleadership.com/a-brief- history-the-four-waves-of-feminism/ Esteva, N. (2019, March 14). The women who helped shape Philippine feminism. Cnn. https://www.cnnphilippines.com/life/culture/2019/3/14/The-women-who-helped-shape- Philippine-feminism-.html?fbclid=IwAR0_yTXAKmOsPT6ZCm4Ndy_7pEaLvtcqISvFSle5cPCmbwvzd4U_fP5 X4PI Hega, M., Alporha, V., & Evangelista, M. (2017, December). Feminism and the Women’s Movement in the Philippines: Struggles, Advances, and Challenges. Friedrich- Ebert-Stiftung – Philippine Office. https://library.fes.de/pdf- files/bueros/philippinen/14072.pdf Lumen Learning. (2022). Theories of Gender and Sex | Introduction to Sociology. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-introtosociology/chapter/theories-of-gender- and-sex/ Mcleod, S. (2014). Biological Theories of Gender | Simply Psychology. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/gender- biology.html#:%7E:text=Sex%20refers%20to%20biological%20differences,women%20a ccording%20to%20their%20sex. Planned Parenthood. (2022). Gender Identity & Roles | Feminine Traits & Stereotypes. https://www.plannedparenthood.org/learn/gender-identity/sex-gender-identity/what-are- gender-roles-and-stereotypes Ranjan, V. (2020, April 18). Gender Stratification: Sociological Perspectives. TriumphIAS. https://triumphias.com/blog/gender-stratification-sociological-perspectives/ Weiss, K. (2023, April 24). What to know about having a baby who is intersex. Healthline. https://www.healthline.com/health/baby/what-does-intersex-look- like#appearance 23 Gender division of labor. (n.d.). [Digital art]. weebly.com. https://ws5and62014.weebly.com/gender-division-of-labor.html 24