Module 2: Ethics and Culture (PDF)

# **MODULE 2** ## ETHICS AND CULTURE ### Introduction As discussed from the previous module, ethics is about systematizing and recommending notions of what is right and wrong behavior, acceptable and unacceptable in human behavior which may involve obligations that we are expected to fulfill, pro...

# **MODULE 2** ## ETHICS AND CULTURE ### Introduction As discussed from the previous module, ethics is about systematizing and recommending notions of what is right and wrong behavior, acceptable and unacceptable in human behavior which may involve obligations that we are expected to fulfill, prohibitions that we are required to respect, and ideals that we are encouraged to meet. In line with that, society and culture definitely plays a major role in shaping our moral thinking and behavior. That is why in this module, the crucial influence of society and culture to ethical thinking shall be discussed. Moreover, we will also assess the position of cultural relativism. We will also reflect on the fundamental qualities of the Filipino moral identity. ### What Will You Learn? After completing the module, you will be able to: 1. Evaluate the strengths and weakness of cultural relativism 2. Recognize and appreciate differences in the moral behavior of different cultures and generations 3. Reflect on the fundamental qualities of the Filipino moral identity in their own moral experiences. ### Activities #### Let's try this! Before you read on, try and answer the following questions below. Write your answer on the space provided. 1. Is morality absolute? Or Is morality relative? 2. Are all moral behavior the same among all cultures? How about among different generations? ### Let's Read! #### **Topic 1: Ethics and Culture** "Darius, a king of ancient Persia, was intrigued by the variety of cultures he met in his travels. He had found, for example, that the Callatians, who lived in India, ate the bodies of their dead fathers. The Greeks, of course, did not do that-the Greeks practiced cremation and regarded the funeral pyre as the natural and fitting way to dispose of the dead. Darius thought that a sophisticated outlook should appreciate the differences between cultures. One day, to teach this lesson, he summoned some Greeks who happened to be at his court and asked what it would take for them to eat the bodies of their dead fathers. They were shocked, as Darius knew they would be, and replied that no amount of money could persuade them to do such a thing. Then Darius called in some Callatians and, while the Greeks listened, asked them what it would take for them to burn their dead fathers' bodies. The Callatians were horrified and told Darius not to speak of such things. This story, recounted by Herodotus in his History, illustrates a recurring theme in the literature of social science" (Rachels & Rachels 2019). Should you eat the bodies of the dead or burn them? Which cultural practice do you think is correct? ### **Cultural Relativism** Cultural relativism is a view that good and bad are relative to culture. Different cultures have different moral codes. What is thought right within one group may horrify the members of another group and vice versa. What is "good" is what is "socially approved" in a given culture. Our moral principles describe social conventions and must be based on the norms of our society. Perhaps the most appealing of its claims is that that it emphasizes that no culture is superior to any other culture when comparing systems of morality, law, politics, etc. as a result, resulting in moral tolerance. Cultural beliefs are equally valid and that truth itself is relative, depending on the cultural environment. Thus, those who hold to cultural relativism hold that all religious, ethical, aesthetic, and political beliefs are completely relative to the individual within a cultural identity. The following claims by cultural relativist 1. Different societies have different moral codes. 2. The moral code of a society determines what is right within that society; that is, if the moral code of a society says that a certain action is right, then that action is right, at least within that society. 3. There is no objective standard that can be used to judge one society's code as better than another's. There are no moral truths that hold for all people at all times. 4. The moral code of our own society has no special status; it is but one among many. 5. It is arrogant for us to judge other cultures. We should always be tolerant of them. Perhaps it is undeniable that different cultures have different moral codes. What is thought right within one group may horrify the members of another group and vice versa. To raise questions from the story, we can ask this following. First, should individuals eat the bodies of the dead or burn them? Second, can they judge the culture of others? The answer to the first question is that, if you were a Greek, to burn the bodies of the dead would seem correct; but if you were a Callatian, to eat the bodies of the dead would seem equally certain. For the second question, to call a custom "correct" or "incorrect" would imply that we can judge that custom by some independent standard of right and wrong. But according to Rachels (2019), no such standard exists; every standard is culture-bound. Culture plays a major part in our perception of what is moral, and because of that, it could also pose some issues since each culture has a unique feature that other culture doesn't have. With this regard, cultural relativism challenges our belief in the objectivity and universality of moral truth. Watch! Online video lecture by Gregory B. Sadler titled, James Rachels' Five Claims of Cultural Relativism. Available online: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HAwljx5Ms2A ### Ima Relativist (from Harry Gensler 2011, pp. 8-9) My name is Ima Relativist. I've embraced cultural relativism as I've come to appreciate the deeply cultural basis for morality. I was brought up to believe that morality is about objective facts. Just as snow is white, so also infanticide is wrong. But attitudes vary with time and place. The norms that I was taught are the norms of my own society; other societies have different ones. Morality is a cultural construct. Just as societies create different styles of food and clothing, so too they create different moral codes. I've learned about these in my anthropology class and experienced them as an exchange student in Mexico. Consider my belief that infanticide is wrong. I was taught this as if it were an objective standard. But it isn't; it's just what my society holds. When I say "Infanticide is wrong," this just means that my society disapproves of it. For the ancient Romans, on the other hand, infanticide was all right. There's no sense in asking which side here is "correct." Their view is true relative to their culture, and our view is true relative to ours. There are no objective truths about right or wrong. When we claim otherwise, we're just imposing our culturally taught attitudes as the "objective truth." "Wrong" is a relative term, and thus needs a further reference to complete its sense. Let me explain what this means. Something isn't "to the left" absolutely, but only "to the left of this or that. So "to the left" is a relative term. Similarly, something isn't "wrong" absolutely, but only "wrong in" this or that society. Infanticide might be wrong in one society but right in another. We can express cultural relativism most clearly as a definition: "X is good" means "The majority (of the society in question) approves of X." Other moral terms, like "bad" and "right," can be defined in a similar way. Note the reference to a specific society. Unless otherwise specified, the society in question is that of the person making the judgment. When I say "Hitler acted wrongly," I mean "according to the standards of my society." The myth of objectivity says that things can be good or bad "absolutely"- not relative to this or that culture. But how can we know what is good or bad absolutely? And how can we argue about this without just presupposing the standards of our own society? People who speak of good or bad absolutely are absolutizing the norms of their own society. They take the norms that they were taught to be objective facts. Such people need to study anthropology, or to live for a time in another culture. As I've come to believe in cultural relativism, I've grown in my acceptance of other cultures. Like many exchange students, I used to have this "we're right and they're wrong" attitude. I struggled against this. I came to realize that the other side isn't "wrong" but just "different." We have to see others from their point of view; if we criticize them, we're just imposing the standards of our own society. We cultural relativists are more tolerant. Through cultural relativism I've also come to be more accepting of the norms of my own society. cultural relativism gives a basis for a common morality within a culture-a democratic basis that pools everyone's ideas and insures that the norms have wide support. So I can feel solidarity with my own people, even though other groups have different values. #### **Let's Think About This** Reflect on Ima's position on cultural relativism. Are we in a position to morally judge a particular cultural practice? Write your answer in the space provided. ### Let's Read! #### **Topic 2: Filipino Culture** Given the diversity of the Philippines, the unifying element of Filipino culture is a complex matter. It comprises a diverse set of landscapes, languages, and cultures. As Evason (2016) discussed, "the long history of contact with Spain and the United States continues to have a significant impact on the Filipino identity. One example is the influence of American standards of beauty, which are often measured in the Philippines by the possession of Western physical traits - such as fair skin and curly hair. Another example is the prominence of Christian ideology since the introduction of Christianity by the Spanish. Indeed, when compared to other countries on the Asian continent, the Philippines has one of the highest Christian populations." Nonetheless, a sense of national identity emerged out of the long-standing struggle for independence. In the contemporary Philippines, many Filipinos are very aware of the colonial history of their country. For example, Jose Rizal who is a national hero who fought for Philippine independence is being looked up by many of as an exemplar of a virtuous person. The sense of national identity is however fragile, with loyalty resides first to their kin, group, or community. That is why the Philippines is a collectivist society thus Filipinos see themselves as part of a collective group where the interest of the collectives overrides the interest of the individual (Evason 2016). With this regard, let us survey the core concepts of Filipino culture which contributes not only to their national identity but also their moral identity. #### **Social Hierarchy and "Hiya"** Social hierarchy in the Philippines is very vital. All Filipinos at a very early are being taught of the importance of social hierarchy. One obvious example of this is the gestures, terms of address, and communication styles which depend on the person they interact with as well as the position in the social hierarchy. To give a more specific example, it is expected if you are referring to someone who is older than you but within the same generation, we use the terms Kuya for males and Ate for females, while for family members or even to close family friend, not within the same generation, we use the terms tito or tita. Failing to do so is considered highly disrespectful and a lack of acknowledgment of the established hierarchy. The term Kapwa, on the other hand, refers to "shared self", "shared identity", or "self-in-the-other" (Reyes 2015). Thus, it generally refers to an identity that is shared and whereby people connect despite differences in social status or wealth. Moreover, kapwa is related to the collectivistic nature of Filipino society. It is believed that what is good for one person will be good for the collective and ought to be is shared with fellow people. Being branded as not having any kapwa is an insult as it implies that the person does not belong to a community (Evason 2016). The concept of 'hiya' is also one of the important factors influencing how Filipinos behave and interact with others. According to Evason (2016) hiya translates roughly into English as 'shame' or 'embarrassment', on a deeper level it refers to one's sense of self, propriety, and respect. Filipinos may be more motivated to succeed by a fear of shame rather than fear of failing the task at hand. To avoid experiencing shame, they may try to give face to those around them through complimenting them and avoiding direct criticism. Individuals will often try to be generous and hospitable to avoid hiya and to maintain kapwa. #### **Warmth and Acceptance** It is an undeniable fact that Filipinos are very welcoming and friendly. They love the presence of other individuals around them, and it is common to find strangers engaging in conversation or sharing stories to family, friends or foreigners. Also, are often expressive and sentimental while maintaining a light-hearted character. For example, the word 'hugot ('to pull out') is often used to describe someone drawing out deep sentimental memories or experiences Evason (2016). They are often willing to share stories of their past that may be considered personal. Moreover, Filipinos have the general approach to life is of acceptance. 'Bahala na' (come what may) captures the strong belief among many Filipinos that whatever may happen is a part of God's will. Evason (2016) explains that any individual or group's success is often attributed to fate or God rather than efforts. This indicates a fatalistic attitude throughout society whereby Filipinos are generally accepting of theirs and other circumstances. However, this does not mean Filipinos are passive. Rather, they are hardworking and will often do their best to help themselves and their family. #### **Loób and Kapwa: An Introduction to a Filipino Virtue Ethics** by Jeremiah Reyes (2015) In contrast with the popular scheme of Filipino 'values' inherited from twentieth century American scholarship, this introduction presents a revised interpretation of those 'values' through a dialogue with Aristotelian-Thomistic virtue ethics. Filipino virtue ethics is the result of the mixing of two traditions-the Southeast Asian tribal and animist tradition and the Spanish Catholic tradition for over 300 years. It has two main concepts: loób and kapwa, which serve as pillars that support a special collection of virtues dedicated to strengthening and preserving human relationships. The glossary below is a survey of Filipino virtue ethics. 1. Kagandahang-Loob - this word is literally translated as "beauty-of-will". The beauty of the will in this context is determined by one's relationship towards the kapwa. Someone who has an affective concern for others and the willingness to help them in times of need is a person with kagandahang-loob. It is best understood through the paradigmatic example of a mother's love and concern for her child, most especially during the child's weakness in infancy. 2. Utang-na-Loob-This word is literally translated as 'debt-of-will'. It is the natural response to kagandahang-loob. It is the self-imposed obligation to give back the same kind of kagandahang-loob to the person who has shown it to you. When utang-na-loob is returned with interest, that is more than what is due, it can bring about a circular dynamic between two persons where the one who previously showed kagandahang-loób is now the one with utang-na-loób, and then vice versa; it continues to alternate and strengthen the relationship in the process. 3. Pakikiramdam-The closest translation might be relational sensitivity or 'empath'. It is about being skilled in reading the other person's feelings and correctly guessing his inner state. It requires receptivity to many non-verbal cues, such as subtle facial expressions, tones of voice and bodily gestures. This indirect communication, though it might seem tedious or frustrating to the foreigner, is a way of practicing a kind of emotional intelligence, a way of evaluating and deepening the relationship with the other person. 4. Hiya-Hiya has been variously translated as embarrassment or shame. It has often been negatively criticized when studied in isolation, especially for the Filipino tendency to be roundabout and not direct to the point. But it is a virtue when it controls and restrains selfish desires for the welfare of the other. One of the most common manifestations is withholding a direct verbal confrontation that could embarrass the other, especially in public. 5. Lakas-ng-Loob/Bahala na-Lakas-ng-loob is literally translated as courage, bahala na is sometimes translated as 'fatalism' or 'resignation', but it is translated more positively as courage to face uncertainty'. The unique history of the Philippines must also be taken into account in order to see that this is not just any kind of courage, but a courage for self-sacrifice for the kinship group. #### **Let's Read!** #### **Topic 3: Generational Values** Moral behavior doesn't just vary by culture but also by generations. We commonly hear the terms silent generations, baby boomers, generation x, generation y or millennials, and generation z, which most of the times differentiated by social behaviors and values. But what do these different labels mean, and do any of the stereotypes attached to them contain any grains of truth? Dr. Alexis Abramson, an expert in what is known as "generational cohorts", says we define generations because "when you are born affects your attitudes, your perceptions, your values, your behaviors." This means that each of them has its characteristics (BBC 2020). Below is a survey from the BBC regarding each generation's characteristics and their values. #### **The Silent Generation** This is the first defined generational group. It refers to those born between 1926 and 1945, so these are people who lived through World War Two. The name comes from an article in Time magazine from the 1950s and alludes to the fact that the children of this generation were taught to be seen and not heard. According to Dr. Abramson, this group is: * Disciplined * value-oriented and loyal * interested in direct communication, so enjoy speaking in person as opposed to via technology #### **Baby Boomers** This is the only generation that's been defined by an official government body: The US Census Bureau (which is part of the country's Department for Commerce and is responsible for collecting data from across the US). They're so named because of the huge surge of births after World War Two. The group starts in 1946 and ends with those born around 1964 when the birthrate began to decline again. Dr. Abramson says boomers are: * committed * self-sufficient * competitive (she thinks this may have something to do with how many of them there were) #### **Generation X** The Resolution Foundation think tank defines Gen X as those born between 1966 and 1980. They grew up in a time when technology was advancing fast, but it wasn't nearly as readily available as it is today. Because of this, this generation straddles both the digital and non-digital world and understands the importance of both. Dr. Abramson says these people are: * resourceful * logical * good problem-solvers #### **Millennials (Generation Y)** This is the cohort you've probably heard the most about. It's not entirely certain where the generation starts and ends, but it's approximately those born from 1980 to 1995. They're often described as 'lazy' in the media and that they spend all the money they should be saving for a house on avocado toast, but they're also the first generation to be "digital natives", as Dr. Abramson describes them. She thinks this makes them extremely self-sufficient, as they no longer have to rely on others to solve their problems or teach them things - they have the internet for that. Other defining characteristics include: * confident * curious * questioning authority - Dr Abramson thinks that this can be perceived quite badly by some of the older generations, who would be less likely to do so #### **Generation Z** There are a few conflicting ideas about where this generation starts. Pew Statistics says 1997, Statistics Canada says 1993, and the Resolution Foundation says 2000. Wherever it begins though, we can safely say this group is young and has never known a life without tech. That might be why their alternative name (coined by American psychologist Dr. Jean Twenge) is iGen. Some of their characteristics include: * ambitious * digital-natives * confident #### **Bridging the Generation Gap** The important thing to note according to Dr. Abramson is that while these separations can be useful, at the end of the day we are individuals. It's like with horoscopes: you may identify with one or two characteristics of being a Sagittarius or a Leo, but you won't ever fit your star sign's description exactly. The same goes for cohorts, although as the stereotypes are given more prominence in the media, she notes that people in the different groups can "pigeon hole themselves into aligning themselves with those characteristics". What they can help us with, as Dr. Abramson explains: is "so that we know how and when to work differently with a group." In other words, you wouldn't treat a 60-year-old the same way would a teenager, so having these cohorts gives us a rough idea of what different age groups might want and need (BBC 2020). Moreover, in terms of communication, Dr. Abramson says the key difference between all of these cohorts are the different methods of communication they use. Where the silent generation and baby boomers had to rely on face-to-face relationships and are as a result more "engaged" in their real-life communities, the younger generations have social media for that and create their communities online instead. Nonetheless, the key to overcoming these differences, according to Dr. Abramson, is that "the younger folks can teach the older folks something and the older folks can teach the younger folks something". Thus, she suggests "mentor-mentee relationships, downward and upward". Historically it's usually the older person holding the position of being a mentor. So for example, in a workplace, an older person might take a young newbie under their wing to teach them what they know and give them a leg up in the organization (BBC 2020). #### **Let's Think About This** How would respond to the generational differences in terms of both social and moral behavior? Cite an example to further substantiate your answer. Write your answers in the space provided. #### **How Much Have You Learned?** To find out more how much you have learned from this lesson, try and answer the question below. Write your answer on the space provided. 1. What is Cultural Relativism? For you, is morality absolute or is it relative? 2. Are all moral behavior the same among all cultures? How about per generation? #### **LEARNING OUTPUT** Note: Please accomplish this with your assigned group. You can use platforms such as Google Meet or Facebook Messenger to facilitate your discussion. Each member should submit the same group answer/paper individually. Please follow this format: **Group Members:** * GM1: Full name, Course & Block * GM2: Full name, Course & Block * GM3: Full name, Course & Block **(02) Essay Paper.** . Note: Please accomplish this with your assigned group. Please answer each item in exactly one (1) paragraph with at least fifteen (15) sentences. 1. Discuss with your groupmates the central idea of cultural relativism and evaluate its strength and weakness. Collaborate with your groupmates and compose an answer for the following questions What are the advantages of cultural relativism, what are its disadvantages? Are you for or against it? 2. Reflect and share with your classmates your personal experiences of Filipino Culture. Collaborate with your groupmates and compose an answer for the following questions. What are your personal experiences of Filipino Culture? What are its strengths and weaknesses? Cite at least 2 problems rooted in Filipino qualities you've encountered, and recommend how you would address the problem. What are your insight on the so called "generation gap"? What reflections or realizations may be derived from these experiences? #### **References** Bulaong, O. G., Calano, M. J., Lagliva, A. M., Mariano, M. N., & Principe, J. D. (2018). Ethics: Foundations of moral valuation. Quezon City, Philippines: Rex Book Store. Mabaquiao, N., Jr., & Evangelista, F. (2020). Ethics: Theories and Applications. Manila: Anvil Publishing. Evason, N. (2016) Filipino Culture - Core Concepts. Retrieved July 06, 2020, from https://culturalatlas.sbs.com.au/filipino-culture/filipino-culture-core-concepts Fieser, J. (2020). Ethics. Retrieved July 02, 2020, from https://www.iep.utm.edu/ethics/ Gensler, H. J. (2011). Ethics: A contemporary introduction. London: Routledge. Gert, B., & Gert, J. (2020, September 08). The Definition of Morality. Retrieved July 11, 2020, from https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/morality-definition/ Kvalnes, Ø. (2019). Moral Reasoning at Work. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-15191-1 Mañebog, J. (2013). Moral Standards vs. Non-Moral Standards. Retrieved July 15, 2020, from https://ourhappyschool.com/node/824 Millennials, baby boomers or Gen Z: Which one are you and what does it mean? (2020, January 13). Retrieved January 06, 2021, from https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/articles/zf8j92p Rachels, S., & Rachels, J. (2019). The elements of moral philosophy. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.